4. Literature review

As presented, the concept of sustainable tourism development has gained significant traction, recognising the interconnectedness of environmental, economic, and social aspects. This literature review delves into the social dimension, exploring its multifaceted and multidisciplinary nature. The review aims to examine how the social dimension manifests in the context of rural and regional tourism, analysing how the concept of social sustainability is defined and discussed in relation to tourism. By examining different definitions and classifications of the social dimension, this review aims to provide initial steps towards understanding its complex and often overlooked role in achieving sustainable tourism development.

First, we present and academic literature review on the concept of socially sustainable tourism and from that we set forth a classification of the topics highlighted as essential issues and crucial elements in the discussion of socially sustainable tourism. Next, we present grey literature from international organisations on how sustainable tourism is defined and measured, looking into the frameworks and indicators used. Finally, we present how the social aspects of sustainable tourism development is discussed and presented in national tourism policies in the Nordic countries.

The Academic literary review in this study is based on studies published in journal articles, and reports published by research institutions. The studies collected were read with a focus on searching for specific discussions on socially sustainable tourism, what the social encompasses in discussions on sustainable tourism and what characterises socially sustainable tourism. By doing this the aim was to identify what academic literature on sustainable tourism considers when addressing the social dimensions of sustainability.

To identify and incorporate insights from various studies published in peer-reviewed journal articles, a structured literature search was performed using the ScienceDirect platform. The initial search utilised the term "social sustainable tourism," yielding 55,509 results. To refine the search, additional keywords such as "rural," "regional," and "Nordic" were included, resulting in a narrowed sample of 525 documents published between 2000 and 2024. Further limiting the search to the years 2018-2024 reduced the sample to 250 documents, comprising 195 research articles, 28 review articles, 21 book chapters, and 6 conference abstracts. These documents were then sorted, and abstracts were reviewed to determine their relevance to the study. To ensure a comprehensive perspective, additional studies from sources such as Nordregio, OECD, UNWTO, and the World Travel and Tourism Council were also included. A few academic studies, that were published prior to 2018 and were referenced in much of the collected data, were also added to the sample. Ultimately, 37 documents were identified as highly relevant for the study.

The objective of this literature review was to explore key variables and topics related to social sustainable tourism in rural and regional contexts within the Nordic countries. 

Aslam (2016) and Rosalina et al. (2021) both highlight the need for sustainable development and community-based features in rural tourism, with the latter also emphasising the importance of experiences. McAreavey (2011) and Sharpley (2002) further underscore the significance of adaptive tourism and the potential for rural tourism to contribute to economic and social development. However, they also point out the challenges of institutional capacity, stakeholder interests, and the dominance of mass tourism operators. These findings suggest that while rural tourism in the Nordic countries presents opportunities for sustainable development, it also requires careful management and support. While rural tourism in both developed and developing contexts emphasised location as a main defining characteristic, sustainable development and community-based aspects appear prominently in the literature related to developing countries, and the experience dimension appears more frequently in the literature related to developed countries (Rosalina et al. 2021).

The social dimension of sustainable tourism development is a key area of concern, with a need for more attention and research (Nugraheni, 2020; Baros, 2007). This dimension is often overlooked in favour of economic and environmental aspects (Nugraheni, 2019). This might partially be caused by the fact that both economic and environmental factors are more easily measurable. Environmental indicators in tourism measure aspects like energy and water consumption, waste generation, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity impacts, land use changes, water quality, and air quality. Economic indicators track tourist arrivals, expenditure, employment, revenue, contribution to GDP, investment, prices, and business profitability. On the other hand, indicators for measuring social sustainability in tourism include community, destination, and organisational variables (Franzoni, 2015). Social impacts of tourism, such as cultural impacts, community empowerment, social equity, and tourist satisfaction, are often more difficult to measure due to their subjective and intangible nature. Existing methods rely on qualitative data and surveys, which can be time-consuming and resource intensive. Further research and development of robust and standardised methods are therefore needed to better capture the social aspects of tourism. Adding to the complexity of this, there is a lack of consensus on the concept and definition of social sustainability in this context (Nugraheni, 2019; Tölkes, 2018).

As Nugraheni (2020; 2019) further points out, social sustainability cannot be absolute or constant and the social dimension of sustainable tourism development is difficult to attain and operationalise.  Despite these challenges, research has highlighted the importance of social indicators in measuring tourism sustainability. These indicators focus on the behaviour of key actors and the pursuit of stakeholder consensus, providing valuable insights into the social dimension of tourism and making stakeholder consensus a possibility (Franzoni, 2015). Moreover, the integration of sustainable tourism indicators into planning and management processes is crucial for ensuring equitable and inclusive tourism practices (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2023).

Taking a closer look at literature on the Nordic model of social sustainability in tourism reveals that the concept operates within a framework that prioritises equality, inclusivity, and collective well-being. This model prioritises approaches that benefit local communities, preserve cultural heritage, and ensure an equitable distribution of resources (Hall & Brown, 2020). European and Nordic perspectives often interweave cultural heritage conservation with contemporary sustainable practices. Bjørk (2019) highlights this interconnectedness, advocating for balanced tourism development that respects social values and traditional ways of life. This approach recognises the importance of preserving cultural heritage while simultaneously fostering sustainable tourism practices. 

Social sustainability in Nordic tourism is therefore mainly conceptualised as the process of designing and managing tourism activities in a manner that maximises benefits for local communities, preserves cultural heritage, and ensures an equitable distribution of resources among stakeholders (Lundberg & Fredman, 2021). This model advocates for maximizing benefits for local communities, fostering high levels of social capital, adhering to environmental protection regulations, and promoting stakeholder engagement with participatory approaches involving local communities and respect for cultural heritage.

The academic literature review suggests that despite growing recognition, socially sustainable tourism remains understudied compared to the environmental and economic dimensions. Furthermore, a clear definition of the concept and a common understanding of what falls under socially sustainable tourism is unclear. The social dimension in sustainable tourism development is multifaceted in nature, but from the literature there are clear common themes encompassing the concept. Aspects like equality, education, health, and community well-being are among topics that fall under the concept. Measuring and operationalising subjective and intangible concepts like these pose challenging. Despite challenges in measuring and defining the concept, social sustainability remains a vital component of sustainable tourism development. The fact that the versatile nature of the concept is a matter of substantial discussion further underlines its importance. Overall, tourism is a complex and ever-evolving landscape, and its comprehensive scope encompasses a wide array of issues and consequences, both positive and negative, reflecting the intricate interrelationships between tourism and society.

From the equitable distribution of tourism benefits and community empowerment to preserving cultural heritage and ensuring social cohesion, a myriad of topics fall under the umbrella of social sustainability. These diverse aspects span various academic disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, economics, psychology, and political science, highlighting the multidimensional nature of social sustainability in tourism. Understanding this complexity is paramount in understanding the concept and developing effective strategies for achieving social sustainability. By recognising the interconnectedness of the various social issues and consequences, stakeholders can work towards creating a more equitable, inclusive, and sustainable tourism industry.

The next section presents further the different components of socially sustainable tourism that were taken from the literature review.

After reviewing the academic literature, the exploration led to a categorisation of the topics presented as key issues and vital components in the discussion of socially sustainable tourism. It should be kept in mind that the literature review encompassed literature from different parts of the world and although the most relevant material for this study was chosen, the topics sometimes had different focus points and priorities than it might have in the Nordic countries. The themes were however the same. Therefore, the following categories of topics that were extracted from the literature can have a different relevance for different areas in the Nordic countries. While some topics can be shared as vital across all Nordic regions, others can be relevant in one setting while irrelevant on others.

The following were identified as key components from the literature on socially sustainable tourism. Here, these topics have been classified into 16 different categories and in some cases recommendations for how to address specific challenges are also presented.

In the context of sustainable tourism, community engagement plays a crucial role in shaping policies and actions that benefit local residents. By involving local communities in policy development, tourism initiatives can be tailored to meet the specific needs and preferences of the people who call these regions home. Opportunities for capacity building and decision-making further empower communities to have a voice in the development of tourism strategies, ensuring that their interests are taken into consideration (Scheyvens & van der Watt, 2021).

Preserving cultural integrity and promoting heritage conservation are essential aspects of sustainable tourism. Practices such as environmental justice and social considerations are vital in maintaining a delicate balance between tourism development and local social and environmental concerns. Strategies that aim to uphold and promote local cultural heritage while ensuring authenticity in tourist experiences contribute to a more meaningful and sustainable tourism industry (Jamal & Higham, 2021; Chambers, 2023; Czernek-Marszałek, 2020). 

The negative effects of over-tourism, such as increased visitor pressure and community displacement pose significant challenges to sustainable tourism. Conducting impact assessments to understand the implications of tourism growth on local communities is essential. Measures must be implemented to manage visitor pressure effectively and prevent displacement, safeguarding the well-being of residents and the cultural fabric of the region (Oklevik et al, 2020; Slätmo et al, 2021; Fredman & Margaryan, 2021).

Ensuring equitable distribution of tourism benefits and access to tourism opportunities for all community members is key to fostering social sustainability. Addressing issues of equity and accessibility in tourism development promotes inclusivity and diversity, allowing a broader range of individuals to participate in and benefit from the tourism sector (Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020; Sisto et al, 2022).

Balancing tradition and innovation in tourism practices is essential for preserving cultural heritage while embracing new and sustainable tourism trends. Valuing local traditions while encouraging innovative tourism practices ensures that communities can benefit from tourism development without compromising their cultural identities. By preserving cultural heritage amidst technological advancements, destinations can offer unique and authentic experiences to visitors (Palmi & Lezzi, 2020; Katsoni & Spyriadis, 2020).

Collaboration among various stakeholders, including government entities, local communities, and industry partners, is vital for promoting socially responsible tourism practices. Engaging in collaborative initiatives and partnerships fosters a collective approach to sustainable tourism development, where diverse voices and perspectives contribute to the well-being of both tourists and local residents (Graci, 2020; Gustafsson & Amer, 2023).

Establishing robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms is essential for assessing social sustainability and community well-being in tourism destinations. Implementing metrics to measure the impacts of tourism on local communities and continuously gathering feedback ensures adaptive policy improvements and the alignment of tourism practices with community needs and expectations (Hovelsrud, et al, 2021).

Understanding the socio-economic impacts of tourism on local residents is critical for creating sustainable tourism models that benefit communities. Monitoring the quality of life and well-being indicators among residents helps identify areas where tourism can enhance livelihoods and improve community welfare, facilitating a balanced and inclusive approach to tourism development (Kronenberg & Fuchs, 2022; Xie, 2020).

The adequacy of public services to support tourism development is essential for ensuring a seamless and enriching visitor experience while maintaining the well-being of local communities. Investing in infrastructure development that meets the needs of both tourists and local residents promotes sustainable tourism practices and enhances the overall quality of life in the destination (Oklevik et al, 2020; Ianioglo & Rissanen, 2020; Sæþórsdóttir et al, 2020).

The growth of tourism can impact housing affordability and accessibility for local populations, leading to housing challenges such as displacement and changes in the housing market. Implementing policies to address these housing issues and protect the housing rights of residents helps mitigate potential adverse effects of tourism development on local housing markets (Adamiak, 2020; Mikulić et al 2021; Cró & Martins, 2024).

Private companies play a crucial role in promoting social sustainability within tourism development by balancing profit motives with social and environmental responsibility. Acknowledging the obligations of private sector entities to support socially sustainable practices ensures that tourism development benefits both local communities and the broader environment (Oklevik et al, 2020).

Considering the impacts of tourism on local health and well-being is essential for creating a sustainable and responsible tourism industry. Implementing health promotion initiatives within tourism development strategies helps safeguard the health and safety of both tourists and local residents, contributing to a more robust and resilient tourism sector (Godovykh & Ridderstaat, 2020).

Providing educational opportunities and initiatives within the tourism sector enhances the knowledge and skills of individuals working in or affected by tourism activities. Community education programs play a crucial role in promoting sustainable tourism practices and fostering a deeper understanding of the importance of tourism for local communities and economies (Edelheim, 2020; Graci, 2020).

Understanding community attitudes and perceptions toward tourism development is key to growing a positive and supportive relationship between tourists and local residents. Implementing engagement strategies to address community concerns and enhance support for tourism initiatives builds trust and collaboration, leading to more sustainable and inclusive tourism development (Chen et al, 2020; Helgadóttir & Dashper, 2021).

Establishing effective frameworks and mechanisms for tourism governance ensures the transparent and accountable management of tourism activities. Upholding principles of transparency and accountability in tourism decision-making processes promotes the responsible and sustainable development of tourism destinations, benefiting both residents and visitors (Bogason et al, 2020, Karlsdóttir et al, 2021; Bishlet, 2021).

Promoting decent and fair employment opportunities in the tourism sector is essential for building a sustainable and inclusive industry. Supporting labour protections and workers' rights within the tourism sector enhances job quality, stimulates social equity, and contributes to the well-being of tourism workers and their communities (Filho et al, 2021; Ioannides et al, 2021).

The literature review has provided a comprehensive understanding of what academia considers to be most relevant when analysing socially sustainable tourism. By examining the intersection of social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors within tourism development, the literature review presented multifaceted dimensions and contributed to critical components regarding the concept itself. Therefore, socially sustainable tourism, must be viewed as part of the broader concept of sustainable tourism development which includes environmental, economic, and social dimensions. The social dimension, which is often overlooked, is considered crucial for a balanced and successful sustainable tourism development. The social dimension of sustainable tourism development can therefore involve the improvement of host communities’ living standards and the protection of local traditions and cultural landscapes, but also a construct of a socially responsible tourist, emphasising the need for tourists to be aware of and support social sustainability in their travel behaviours. While all the variables and topics gathered and categorised after the academic literature review are to some extent relevant to socially sustainable tourism in the Nordic countries, the emphasis on community engagement, cultural integrity, equity, stakeholder collaboration, and the well-being of the local population align closely with Nordic values and priorities. This makes those topics particularly significant in the context of tourism development in the region.

To further compliment what academic research on sustainable tourism development, and especially the social dimensions of the concept entails, the research team took a look at existing frameworks and indicator schemes for measuring the sustainability of tourism. Numerous frameworks have been developed to measure the sustainability of tourism, each varying in scope, methodology, and application. However, this research will confine its focus to large-scale international schemes due to their comprehensive nature and widespread acceptance. Specifically, the study will examine frameworks developed by prominent organisations, such as the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the European Commission in conjunction with Eurostat, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC). These organisations have established to a wide degree recognised indicators that offer insights into various dimensions of sustainable tourism, including economic, environmental, and some social aspects. By centering on these leading frameworks, the research aims to provide a better overview of the topics and indicators that are currently influential and authoritative tools in shaping the discourse on sustainable tourism measurement.

The Statistical Framework for Measuring the Sustainability of Tourism (SF-MST) is a newly developed multipurpose conceptual framework designed to support the recording and presentation of data about the sustainability of tourism. It aims to record data about tourism’s economic, environmental and social connections. What falls under each dimension according to this framework can be seen in table 1 (UNTWO, 2023). Prior to this the UNWTO had presented a set of indicators that responded to policy and destination management needs, e.g. the 2004 UNWTO Guidebook for Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations (WTO, 2004). Other actors have also done some work on establishing relevant indicators for sustainable tourism development. 

Eurostat released a comprehensive review in 2006 of the measurement of sustainable tourism which included 20 indicators, primarily from economic and environmental domains, along with a few social/cultural indicators. The indicator set was intended to be applied at regional/sub-national level (Eurostat, 2006). In 2022, Eurostat, jointly with the Member States, started working on an updated set of indicators on the sustainability of tourism. The main headings identified in that version are 1) economy, 2) labour market, 3) social and cultural (other than labour market), 4) environmental and 5) digitalisation (UNTWO, 2023).

In 2010 the OECD also identified three main challenges for sustainable tourism - climate change, resource conservation, social cohesion. Their following work created a limited set of indicators. More recent work of the OECD covers a wider range of issues while the indicators are still quite general, focusing on demographics, GDP, labour force, environmental, landcover and innovation (OECD, 2016). 

In 2013 the European Tourism Indicators System for sustainable destination management was developed with 43 core indicators (European Commission, 2016a) defined. This has since been further developed and now has more optional indicators. All the indicators are subdivided into four categories: 1) destination management, 2) social and cultural impact, 3) economic value, 4) environmental impact. The social and cultural impact indicators are 5 in total

Community/social impact, Health and safety, Gender equality, Inclusion/accessibility & Protecting and enhancing cultural heritage, local identity and assets (European Commission, 2016b)

with 13 sub indicators (see Table 2). 

The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) Destination Criteria Version 2.0, which was presented in 2019, provides a framework and performance indicators for sustainable tourism. It was designed for application across diverse destinations, regardless of size or location, and involves various stakeholders including local communities, businesses, and governments (GSTC, 2019). It outlines expectations for destination management organisations to coordinate efforts on sustainable tourism. The criteria also include guidance for visitor management, local economic benefits, cultural heritage protection, and environmental sustainability. They serve as a foundation for certification, helping destinations validate their sustainable practices and communicate this commitment to tourists and other stakeholders.

The revised criteria promote a more developed approach to monitoring and improving sustainability performance across areas such as stakeholder engagement, economic contribution, cultural asset protection, resource management, and environmental impact mitigation. A commitment to improving the social fabrics such as health, safety, and cultural integrity within the tourism context is outlined as well as community engagement and feedback. 

Based on previous work the European Commission has since also launched its so-called EU Tourism Dashboard which was made available in 2022. The online tool is aimed at promoting and monitoring the green and digital transitions, and socioeconomic resilience factors of EU tourism. The indicators are grouped in three policy-related categories: environmental impacts, digitalisation and socio-economic vulnerability (European Commission, 2022).

Since 2021 EU’s EPA Network and Interest Group Environment and Tourism (IGET) has taken on the role of sharing environmental data to support the process of selecting indicators relating to the environmental dimension of tourism sustainability. The goal is to help provide a more complete picture of tourism in the context of monitoring environmental impacts (EPA, 2022).

These indicator initiatives highlight the relevance of measuring the performance of countries and destinations as part of implementing sustainable tourism objectives. Although all three dimensions of sustainable tourism development are usually considered in these indicator systems, traditionally the most prominent focus has been on economic performance while environmental consequences of tourism have become more prominent in recent years. As shown, the social dimension of sustainable tourism development is now also being considered to a greater extent. Nonetheless, quantitative measures used for environmental and economic dimensions are not as easily accessible when it comes to social sustainability. Social indicators often involve subjective assessments and diverse perspectives, making it challenging to create standardised metrics that capture the complex social aspects of sustainable tourism. The relevance of these social indicators might also vary greatly from one destination to the next based on contextual differences since each region has unique social, economic, and environmental contexts that shape their priorities when it comes to tourism development. 

Furthermore, social impacts, such as community well-being, cultural preservation, and social equity, are intangible and context-specific, making them difficult to quantify and measure consistently across different destinations and communities. Social sustainability in tourism is influenced by a wide range of factors, including community engagement, cultural preservation, and social inclusion, which involve multiple stakeholders with varying interests and priorities, making it challenging to capture and measure the breadth of social impacts accurately. 

It should also be noted that social impacts of sustainable tourism development often unfold over extended periods, requiring long-term monitoring and evaluation to assess changes in community well-being, cultural identity, and social cohesion, which adds complexity to measuring the continuous and evolving nature of social sustainability. Also, compared to environmental and economic data, social data for sustainable tourism development can be harder to collect, less standardised, and reliant on self-reported or anecdotal information. This can lead to potential data gaps, inconsistencies and reliability issues in measuring social impacts effectively.

In measuring the sustainability of tourism, a range of social indicators serves to assess the multifaceted impacts on local communities and visitors. Key indicators include cultural and heritage preservation, reflected in the percentage of residents satisfied with tourism's impact on cultural heritage and the identity of the local destination, as well as the focus on traditional/local culture in destinations. Health outcomes, education levels, and overall community well-being are, according to the existing indicators, considered crucial aspects as well, capturing the broader social dynamics influenced by tourism. Visitor perception is another critical domain, indicating tourist satisfaction, safety, and their interactions with local culture. Effective tourism governance, demonstrated by the management roles assigned to women and the overall employment equity in the sector, further highlights the importance of inclusivity and equitable opportunities within tourism enterprises. Accessibility remains a vital component, evaluated through the accessibility of commercial accommodations, public transport, and tourist attractions for people with disabilities, alongside the participation in recognised accessibility schemes.

Based on the academic literature review presented earlier and the brief introduction to some of the existing monitoring schemes it becomes clear that achieving a comprehensive understanding of the social dimension of sustainable tourism development based on a standardised indicators is a complex task. The interests and priorities of local stakeholders – including residents, businesses, and policymakers – can vary widely, influencing which indicators are deemed most important. The historical development of a region, including past tourism initiatives and their outcomes, can affect current priorities and strategies. Different characteristics like demographic composition, cultural values, income levels and employment rates, available natural resources, environmental sensitivity, how tourism is governed and the regulatory environment all play a role in what affects social values at different destinations. 

A better understanding of the social dimension of sustainable tourism therefore requires an integrative and holistic approach that incorporates diverse perspectives, community engagement, and participatory methods, that can contribute to a framework that capture the interconnectedness of the social as well as the environmental and economic aspects. The next step of the research was therefore to examine the national tourism policies of the Nordic countries to see if and how they address the social dimension of sustainable tourism development.