Source: Harald Eisenberger, on behalf of the City of Weiz

Several policies regulating or touching upon issues related to food, energy, and water exist in Europe to guide the development of these sectors. Policies that deal with the circularity of resources are also relevant as they enable the circular flows among the food, energy, and water. Figure 2 lists some of the most relevant policies. Below, we outline the most relevant EU policies as identified by the stakeholders of TANGO-W ULLs.

Among these is the Green Deal, which aims to make Europe climate-neutral by 2050. This document promotes sustainable food systems through the Farm to Fork Strategy and biodiversity protection, transition to renewable energy sources across all sectors, including cities, and emphasises energy-efficient buildings and clean energy technologies. As part of its goals for sustainable resource use and climate resilience, the Green Deal also supports water-efficient urban planning and infrastructure and highlights the importance of resource efficiency, waste reduction, and the development of circular business models in urban environments.

Circular Economy Action Plan (EC 2023) is a core element of the European Green Deal. This plan promotes a circular economy by reducing waste, improving product design for durability, and encouraging recycling and reuse. It emphasizes circular practices in cities, including waste management, urban resource recovery, and sustainable consumption. This document also includes initiatives that support circular agriculture, such as urban farming practices and promote water reuse, water-saving technologies, and the reduction of water waste in urban settings, contributing to sustainable urban water systems.

EU Biodiversity Strategy (European Commission 2020b) aims to restore biodiversity and ecosystems, with urban agriculture contributing to urban greening and ecosystem services. The document also encourages cities to implement nature-based solutions that improve water retention, restore urban wetlands, and enhance natural water cycles, promoting urban biodiversity and water sustainability.

Urban Agenda for the EU (European Commission 2016) promotes sustainable urban development, including energy efficiency, clean energy technologies, and the integration of renewable energy solutions in cities. The Sustainable Urban Development Strategy, which is part of this document, encourages integrated water management in urban planning, supporting efficient water use, stormwater management, and the protection of urban water resources.

Despite the crucial role of these policies to guide sustainability in the FEW-nexus, their broad scope can lead to multi-level governance challenges as local administrations translate them into actionable steps at the local level. The ULL in Halden provides some examples of what this looks like. The Farm to Fork Strategy (European Commission 2020b), supports the efforts in the Halden ULL to reduce food waste since the strategy aims for Europe to prevent food loss and waste alongside developing sustainable food production, consumption, and processing and distribution. However, the strategy’s high ambitions also add some strain to the limited resources and expertise of a smaller municipality like Halden. The municipality lacks necessary funding and expertise to implement all aspects of the strategy effectively, and the strategy’s EU-wide standards are not always suited for local conditions and needs. Similarly, the European Green Deal requires local adaptation to align with municipal objectives, as it is not designed with specific local contexts in mind. Another example is the Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP, 2020), which, while supportive of Halden’s ULL objectives, also provides some hurdles as local waste management practices deviate from the EU recommendations for new waste management systems, making it challenging and costly to adhere to both.

Multi-level governance challenges and opportunities also emerge when working at the FEW-nexus on the local level whilst abiding by national regulations or policies. This often depends on the governance models associated with each country (outlined in Box 1). The TANGO-W project partners have identified various policies, strategies, laws, and regulations that weigh on the work of the ULLs in both beneficial and restrictive ways. The country sections below show how, depending on the goal of the ULL, different policies or regulations at various levels of governance influence the capacity to drive local change.

As described above, food production is the focus of the Swedish TANGO-W ULLs. Sweden’s approach to urban agriculture is integrated across various policy areas. While there is no standalone national law on urban farming, the legal framework is shaped by a blend of policies connected to land use (Planning and Building Act -Plan- och bygglagen), food safety (Food Act -Livsmedelslagen; SFS 2006:804); food regulation (Livsmedelsförordningen), and the environment (The Environmental Code -Miljöbalken, SFS 1998:808), with local municipalities playing a critical role in implementation. These regulations ensure that urban agriculture aligns with the country’s sustainability, environmental, and public health goals.

Sweden benefits from favourable conditions for local sustainability initiatives, supported by a decentralized governance framework that emphasizes strong local self-governance. This is further supported by a long-standing tradition of local engagement in sustainability, tracing back to the adoption of Local Agenda 21 in 1992. Multi-level governance is enhanced by a strong culture of national-local dialogues and collaboration platforms, including networks of municipalities like Klimatkommunerna.

In practice, however, introducing new farming methods at the local level has encountered challenges, including resistance from stakeholders and restrictions imposed by EU legislation. Norrtälje municipality’s Food Policy (Norrtälje municipality 2024) guides municipal food purchases to ensure they are of high quality and contribute to sustainable development. This policy outlines requirements and guidelines for environmental and climate impact, animal welfare and fair working conditions in food production. While new farming methods, such as aquaponics systems, align with food policy objectives, the Norrtälje ULL has faced challenges in gaining support from politicians and officials resistant to new methods. In addition, the National Board of Agriculture and KRAV disregards aquaponic food production as eligible for organic certification within the EU hurts the uptake of aquaponic technology in the market.  Additionally, the multi-level governance challenges in the Norrtälje ULL include difficulties with stakeholder interactions and project anchoring amidst changes in project team composition. These issues illustrate the complexity of maintaining consistent engagement in the face of evolving team dynamics.

In the Stockholm ULL, multi-level governance challenges exist with regards to engaging stakeholders, mainly due to the sheer size of the municipality. In many cases, it can be difficult process for the City to work across administrations, but the Stockholm Royal Seaport district works uniquely with a cross-administration working group which makes cooperation easier. Furthermore, in Stockholm Royal Seaport, there are requirements integrated into land allocation contracts with developers which helps to ensure that all requirements are fulfilled. However, some challenges remain regarding how to formulate the requirements. While some flexibility for interpretation may be useful, it is also a challenge to make sure the requirements are not too vague. Thematic seminars help the city communicate better with developers on the reasons for the requirements, with inspiration from frontrunners, and there are plans to organise a seminar on urban farming to help developers implement the sustainability requirement.

Urban agriculture is a focus of the Norwegian TANGO-W ULLs. In Norway, urban agriculture is governed by a mix of national legislation such as the Planning and Building Act (PBA), the Food Act (Matloven), and the Agriculture Act, alongside local municipal policies. These regulations ensure that urban farming complies with food safety, land use, and environmental sustainability standards, creating a favourable environment for urban farming initiatives. Local governments often play a crucial role in promoting and regulating urban agriculture within their jurisdictions. Furthermore, the Norwegian Strategy for Urban Agriculture is stepping stone for food production in cities (Norwegian Ministries 2021). This strategy not only supports local food systems and promotes environmental stewardship but also encourages innovative farming methods in cities. It aligns with Norway’s broader goals of sustainable development and environmental protection.

Similar to Sweden, the governance landscape in Norway is characterised by strong municipalities that enjoy a high degree of autonomy and significant responsibilities. The task of advancing sustainable development is explicitly mentioned in the Local Government Act from 2018, empowering municipalities to demonstrate strong local leadership for sustainability. One of the objectives of the Act is to enable regional and local authorities to be more efficient, confidence-inspiring, and sustainable (Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development 2021). Multi-level governance in Norway is characterised by robust interactions and coordination across various governmental layers—national, regional, and local.

At the national level, both Norwegian ULLs are guided by the Norwegian Climate Change Act which sets clear climate targets guiding the municipal sustainability efforts. The act encourages public engagement and debate on climate issues, potentially enhancing community support for initiatives such as local food production and food waste reduction programs. While the act ensures that local climate aims are aligned with the national level ambitions, the specific targets set by the act may not always align with local circumstances and capabilities, occasionally leading to a mismatch between national goals and local implementation.

The National Pollution Control Act is also relevant, especially for Halden, which is focused on food waste prevention. The act provides the regulatory framework which the Halden ULL must follow to ensure environmental quality and public health are maintained in their new food waste reduction initiatives. However, the stringent regulations can pose challenges for smaller municipalities like Halden, which may lack the resources needed for such extensive waste management efforts, potentially hindering innovation. Additionally, the National Waste Regulations (2023) set strict requirements for waste sorting, including bio waste and plastics for recycling, and aim to enable Norway to recycle or prepare for reuse of 65% of household waste by 2035. While these regulations provide clear guidelines that enhance efficiency and support environmental goals, they also necessitate significant changes to local waste management infrastructure. This places a financial burden on the municipality, which may strain local waste management systems and staff despite the importance of these sustainability goals.

In the Halden ULL, multi-level governance has benefited from successfully engaging stakeholders through workshops and collaborative meetings, fostering a sense of ownership and alignment with user needs. However, balancing the varied interests and power dynamics among these stakeholders continues to be a significant challenge.

In the Marker ULL, the use of participatory methods has effectively engaged stakeholders, fostering a sense of ownership and collaboration among community members. However, from a multi-level governance perspective, challenges such as leadership turnover, difficulties in maintaining consistent engagement, and resource constraints remain. These issues will need to be addressed in future projects to ensure continued progress and effectiveness.

Austria’s renewable energy work is shaped by its Renewable Expansion Act, National Energy and Climate Plan, and various other initiatives aimed at achieving 100% renewable electricity by 2030 and broader decarbonization goals by 2040. The country focuses on expanding hydropower, solar, and wind energy while promoting energy efficiency and encouraging citizen participation in renewable projects.

Multi-level governance challenges at the Klagenfurt ULL include the need for clear communication and precise role definition among stakeholders.

In Weiz, the ULL is supported by several national level policies in their work to establish a new vision for the municipality. The success of multi-level governance hinges on effective multi-stakeholder collaboration, which in case of Weiz ULL has been compromised by political shifts and constraints in administration, finance, and human resources. Furthermore, the challenges of managing diverse interests and navigating power dynamics have emerged as additional challenges. To overcome these obstacles, Weiz ULL has demonstrated flexibility by adapting its approaches and developing targeted engagement strategies for specific groups such as young people.

At the national level, the ULL is informed by the National Waste Prevention and Management Plan (2021-2027), which sets out the objective of expanding separate biowaste collection by 2024, textile waste by 2025, and furniture by 2026. It also promotes the treatment of food and kitchen waste to produce biogas, electricity, and high-quality compost for soil (Dačinskaitė, 2024). Regionally, the Alytus Regional Waste Prevention and Management Plan for 2021-2027 aims to harmonise the actions of the municipalities in the region by establishing a common waste and disposal facility and organising waste management systems.

Another key strategic document in Lithuania is the Guidelines for Lithuania’s Transition to a Circular Economy by 2035, adopted in 2023. This document establishes a horizontal approach and outlines six key intervention areas, with circular waste management being one of them (Ministry of the Environment of the Republic of Lithuania 2023). Additionally, the Comprehensive Plan of Lithuania and the National Energy and Climate Action Plan for 2021–2030 set goals to increase biofuel to 9% and biogas to 2% of the country’s electricity production by 2030. Furthermore, the National Energy Independence Strategy, Regional Policy White Paper, and the government’s strategic programmes, serve as driving force of bioenergy development through a prism of energy independence and security (Vitunskienė et al. 2023).

With its centralized governance system in Lithuania, where sub-national government tiers have limited functions, tools, responsibilities, and resources, local authorities face restrictions in tailoring development initiatives to regional needs and opportunities. This can slow progress in advancing local sustainability agendas. Additionally, the management of biological resources is fragmented, with responsibilities scattered across various ministries, potentially diminishing coordination efforts. Further developing platforms for cooperation (e.g. networks, clusters), along with enhancing both vertical and horizontal coordination, presents significant opportunities to strengthen multi-level governance in Lithuania.

While the Alytus ULL successfully engaged multiple stakeholders – citizens, businesses, and policymakers – to discuss strategies for energy, food, water, and governance, challenges in multi-level governance persist, particularly in balancing stakeholder interests and ensuring effective communication across various levels of governance.