Denmark has a special relationship with cycling that developed during the 20th century, when cycling became something of a national and democratic symbol (Carstensen & Ebert, 2012). Carstensen and Ebert (2012) point to critical factors such as strategic alliances between cyclists and drivers, bicycle tourism, and a clear national narrative about the independence and sensibility of the bicycle as factors that contribute to the “naturalness” of cycling in the Danish society. Despite the unique position of cycling as synonymous with Danish culture, numbers of cyclists have stagnated in recent years. During the last decade, numbers have generally decreased and only reached 2012-levels again in 2022 (Vejdirektoratet, 2023-a). 

Following the Danish Climate Act of 2020, Denmark set itself the target to reduce GHG emissions by 70% in 2030 compared to the levels of 1990 as it transitions to carbon-neutrality by 2050 (Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy, and Utilities, 2020). The goal runs parallel with the country’s commitments to the Paris Agreement targets and EU climate objectives. The Danish government is also bound to the indicative interim goal of a 50-54% reduction of GHG emissions by 2025 (Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy, and Utilities, 2021). Notably, the Danish Climate Act also introduced a system of checks and balances by expanding the role of the Danish Council on Climate Change (Klimarådet) which follows up on the government’s work on climate protection, outlined in an annual governmental climate programme. To reach its emissions reduction objective, the Danish government seeks to implement a set of 24 initiatives supporting a green transition in the energy, transportation, agriculture, industry, and waste-management sectors by 2025, which are outlined in the Green Roadmap (2021). The transportation sector is one of the largest emitting sectors of greenhouse gases in Denmark (around 28% in 2019; Simões & Victoria, 2021). Within the sector, road transport is by far the greatest majority of emissions, responsible for 91% of total transport emissions in 2019 (Danish Energy Agency, 2022). According to Denmark’s Climate Status and Outlook report for 2022, the main contributor to road transport emissions are passenger cars. The Danish Energy Agency reports that emissions from the transport sector are expected to fall from 13.5 million tonnes CO₂e in 2019 to around 10.7 million tonnes CO₂e in 2030, mainly due to vehicle electrification, increased blending of renewable fuels, and other energy-efficiency improvements (Danish Energy Agency, 2022). The Green Roadmap estimates a carbon emissions reduction by 2030 by transforming car transportation, specifically through electrification of vehicles but also by encouraging residents to choose the bus or bicycle instead of a fossil fuel car (Statsministeriet, 2021).  

To facilitate the green transition in road transport, the former Danish government entered into agreement with other political parties in 2020, committing to several goals, measures, and funding of different policies related to the green transition in the road transport sector (Aftale om grøn omstilling af vejtransporten).^[1] While agreements such as this one have no legal standing, the main significance of the document comes from the implementation measures taken after the parties (in this case the Social Democrats, the Socialist People’s Part, and the Red-Green Alliance) commit to the work (Folketinget, n.d.).

The agreement on a green transition of road transport has had several follow up measures, such as changes to registration taxes for vehicles based on their CO₂ emissions (Folketinget, 2020) amendments to the Biofuel Act (Folketinget, 2021), and a more recent (2023) legislative proposal that aims to incentivise fuel suppliers to use sustainable fuels for trucks (Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Utilities, 2023). The signatories also expressed their support for investing in cycling infrastructure. Several funding schemes are noted, such as DKK 10 million in 2024 allocated to publicly available charging of electric bicycles in order to encourage more people to choose the bicycle as a climate-friendly mode of transport. More immediately, the agreement acknowledges funding for the cykelpulje (see Mechanisms section below), with DKK 170 million annually for 2022-2023 for cycle path construction along state roads to make cycling more accessible, with assumed 50% co-funding from municipalities.  

The government’s most recently published climate programme (Klimaprogram 2022) points out the high emissions reduction potential of behavioural changes, including switching to the bicycle. (It also mentions taking public transport or switching to an electric vehicle.) The programme provides an implementation plan for achieving the major climate agreements. However, in his foreword for the programme, the Minister for Climate, Energy, and Utilities admits that Denmark only accounts for 0.1% of global emissions; therefore, while national contributions do not necessarily make a profound global impact, the country can provide inspiration in their climate action to other nations. The 2022 programme focused primarily on electrification and biofuels as the key technologies that will support reduced emissions for transport, with sustainable modes such as cycling, walking, and taking public transport, as more marginal additions (Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Utilities, 2022). After the 2022 elections, the new Danish centre-left government vowed to accelerate the work with the development of green transportation, but again with a focus on electrification of car and lorry transportation, as well as increased taxation of plane travels (Statsministeriet, 2022). 

Denmark’s National Infrastructure Plan 2035 is organised into seven pillars, one of which is dedicated to the development of cycling (Transportministeriet, 2021-a). Within the plan, the government emphasises its interest to support more people choosing to travel by bicycle, noting that the emergence of the e-bike provides additional opportunities to achieve this both within and beyond urban areas. The plan also articulates goals around less congestion and noise pollution from vehicular traffic, more attractive public transportation (i.e., transfer opportunities and cycling parking at transport stations), and making it easier to recharge electric vehicles. While cycling plays a role in the plan, extensive focus is also put towards developing new and maintaining existing road infrastructure for road transport, the roll out of electric car infrastructure (such as charting stations), and funding for things like noise screens to control noise pollution from motorways (Transportministeriet, 2021-a). Emphasis in the area of the green transition is on having more green cars on the road (Transportministeriet, 2021-a). Furthermore, several political parties agreed to actions for green conversion of road transport in a 2020 agreement that aims for 1 million green cars in 2030 and a low electricity tax for charging cars, among others (Ministry of Finance, 2020), again displaying the emphasis on electrification of cars as a main method for addressing climate concerns. 

When it comes to safety, the Danish government aims for roads to be safer for motorists, cyclists, and pedestrians (Transportministeriet, 2021-a). The Danish Road Safety Commission’s latest Action Plan (2021-2030) identifies three objectives for 2030: “the number of fatalities in road traffic should be 90 or below,” “the number of seriously injured in road traffic should be 900 or below,” and “no more than 10,000 persons should be slightly injured in road traffic” (Danish Road Safety Commission, 2021, 4). The action plan identifies cyclists, moped riders, and pedestrians as the vulnerable road users who constitute the majority of seriously injured individuals in urban area accidents.  

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, Denmark launched its recovery and resilience plan with seven components to recover from the crisis in a way that ensures progress in the green transition, specifically towards achieving the 70% GHG emissions reduction (Ministry of Finance, 2021). Sustainable road transport is one target area of the plan, where several objectives related to cycling are outlined. Since cycling contributes both to positive environmental and public health outcomes, the plan suggests that Denmark should maintain its leading position as one of the world’s best cycling nations and encourage more people to choose the bicycle (Ministry of Finance, 2021, 152). Furthermore, the plan specifically suggests that citizens should be encouraged to “choose bicycles rather than cars”, including those living outside of urban areas where cycling is not always prioritised (Ministry of Finance, 2021, 154). 

Denmark’s national cycling strategy was last updated in 2014. At that time, the Ministry of Transport presented three pillars for increasing the “use of bicycles as a means of transport for the benefit of mobility, the environment, and public health” (Transportministeriet, 2014, 10). While no measurable target is determined in the strategy, these pillars focussed on everyday cycling, active holiday and recreational cycling, and new and safe cyclists (such as children travelling to and from school). The strategy suggested that the goal of increasing cycling in Denmark can lead to a plethora of benefits: it promotes health, reduced congestion, requires less space than cars (both active and parked), reduces air pollution and noise pollution, is environmentally friendly, can be used by all ages, and can be a socially sustainable option as well (Transportministeriet, 2014). While the strategy has not been updated since 2014, a motion was submitted in 2021 for a parliamentary resolution on a national cycling strategy. According to an article in NetAvisen, the Danish Liberal Party (Venstre) was working on a cycling strategy in 2020 which would act as a way to strengthen funding for cycling projects and encourage coordination between national and local level work (Jørgensen, 2020). However, as of spring 2023, no official cycling strategy has been presented, either from the Ministry of Transport or the Danish Road Directorate.  

Box 2. Summary of national-level cycling-related objectives in Denmark  

According to the recovery and resilience plan, the Danish Road Directorate estimates that the average cost per kilometre of bicycle path is about DKK 7.4 million (Ministry of Finance, 2021). While much of the funding for cycling projects in Denmark comes from the municipalities themselves, several co-financing schemes also exist from the national level, such as the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme (cykelpuljen), which was first introduced in 2009. Municipalities apply for funding from the pool of funds for various projects targeted at cyclists and projects that improve cycling conditions. Municipalities can receive up to 50% of the project co-financed through the state. But the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme also includes funding for cycling projects on national roads, with special focus on bicycle commuting and Denmark’s cycling superhighways. Additionally, research institutions and municipalities can apply for funding for research projects, which can be covered up to 100% by the fund (Transportministeriet, 2021-c). In 2018, the national cycling fund contributed just over DKK 104 million to cycling projects. Some examples of projects supported by the fund include a 5.5 km super cycle path in Odense,^[2] and DKK 2.4 million supporting Copenhagen’s 6 km cycle route linking Ørestad and Central Copenhagen (Vejdirektoratet, 2018).^[3]

Between 2009 and 2020, national subsidies for municipal cycling projects amounted to approximately DKK 1.1 billion (Ministry of Finance, 2021). From 2021, the Danish government plans to invest DKK 2 billion in subsidies into the advancement of cycling and bicycle infrastructure until 2035 through the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme (Transportministeriet, 2021-c). Around DKK 170 million has been allocated annually between 2022 and 2023 to support the construction of cycling infrastructure so that residents are provided with a more robust transport network via cycling (Ministry of Finance, 2021, 154). This does not include an additional DKK 150 million allocated specifically to municipal construction projects, which assumes 50% co-financings from the municipalities. Particular focus is made with rural and suburban connectivity, corresponding with the EU Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy.^[4] As the cycling scheme has existed for more than a decade, research on its effects has been conducted by the Danish Road Directorate (Vejdirektoratet, 2019).

Even though the study applied a broad set of methods to crystalize the fund’s effect on the numbers of cyclists and traffic safety, it was not possible to link national developments in cyclist numbers or traffic safety to the cycling fund, as the development of cycling is multifactorial. None the less, the evaluation showed that within the concrete contexts of the projects that received funding through the fund, several effects were proven including higher usage of new stretches of infrastructure by 22% (on average), 3% of the users of these stretches would have otherwise taken the car, and cyclists felt both safer and happier with the new infrastructure (Vejdirektoratet, 2019). But working with the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme also had implications on work processes within the municipalities who applied, as cycling has been put on the municipalities’ agendas more often nation-wide. Another two advantages are that practical knowledge about cycling has grown among administrators in different sectors, who are now working closer than before. Lastly, municipalities that received funding from the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme also ended up increasing their municipal spending on cycling through, e.g., campaigning (Vejdirektoratet, 2019).

According to the National Infrastructure Plan, a specific pool of DKK 50 million will be dedicated to promoting bicycle parking in connection with public transport and DKK 520 million for promoting green mobility and making it more obvious for citizens to choose the bicycle and the electric bicycle over other forms of transport. It is unclear if these pools are part of, or in addition to, the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme. In the plan period (2021-2035), the Danish government intends to invest DKK 105.8 billion into the country’s entire transport infrastructure, with rolling investments for 5-year periods, so that infrastructure development and planning can adapt to the big changes coming to the transport sector with the green transitioning formalized in the Agreement on the green transitioning of road transportation (Transportministeriet, 2021-a).

As part of the green road transport agreement (Aftale om grøn omstilling af vejtransporten), the Danish government has made direct investments into the cycling network infrastructure along state-owned roads (Ministry of Finance, 2020). The contracting parties agreed to several allocations connected to the Bicycle Subsidy Scheme, as well as future allocation of DKK 10 million in 2024 for public charging stations for electric bicycles. According to Denmark’s Recovery and Resilience Plan, this financial allocation may support around 200 charging locations (Ministry of Finance, 2021).

Denmark uses cycle superhighways as a form of cycling infrastructure to support safe and accessible commuting for cyclists across municipalities. The cycle highways generally run near other forms of sustainable transport (busses, and trains) to enable multi-modal transport (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, n.d.). To be included as a cycle superhighway, the path must adhere to four design principles: accessibility, directness, comfort, and safety (Supercykelstier, n.d.; see Figure 4). The current cycle path network spans across 240 km, but there are plans to expand this dramatically over the next 20 years, to more than 850 km by 2045 (Supercykelstier, 2023).

According to the Cycle Superhighway’s own bicycle account of 2019, transformation and expansion of existing infrastructure to Cycle Superhighways saw various effects, such as a 23% increase in numbers of cyclists on transformed routes and 14% of the new cyclists chose the bicycle instead of the car (Supercykelstier, 2019).

Figure 4. A cycle superhighway route near Ishøj, marked with the cycle superhighways orange C logo. (Source: Supercykelstier)

The Cycle Superhighways organisation is a network of 29 municipalities in the Capital Region and the Capital Region (Region Hovedstaden) collaborating since 2011 to create a coherent cycling network. The participating municipalities, who hold individual responsibility for planning, building, and financing the routes, are the primary developers of the cycling infrastructure. They are often able to obtain co-financing through the state through, for example, the National Cycling Fund or alternative funding schemes like the 2014-15 cycle superhighway fund(Supercykelstier 2018; Vejdirektoratet, 2023-b).^[5] The Secretariat of Cycle Superhighways plays a facilitating role in the work (Supercykelstier, 2019).

In addition to the superhighway model, the Infrastructure Plan also notes that enabling more people to choose the bicycle as an everyday means of transport requires well-designed and modern infrastructure that ensures safe mobility for cyclists who travel alongside other road users. While the main mechanism driving this is financial support to build appropriate cycling infrastructure, the plan also highlights how measures such as developing a comprehensive cycling strategy, marking cycle-friendly routes, providing better cycling access to nature, and mapping existing cycling infrastructure are also important initiatives (Transportministeriet, 2021-c). Conducting a comprehensive overview of Danish cycling infrastructure, for example, would enable the government to make more informed decisions about where future investments should be made and support municipal collaboration.

Another infrastructure mechanism mentioned to increase cycling and also make public transportation more attractive is to ensure smooth transfer conditions between different modes of transport. The infrastructure plan specifically mentions that this means people should be able to take their bicycle with them on trains, and cycling parking should be made easily available at transportation stations. This mechanism was also highlighted in the 2014 national cycling strategy, referred to as the door-to-door strategy. It took into consideration the number of rail passengers who cycled to and from the train station and acknowledged that combining cycling and public transport can allow for smoother trips that make sustainable mobility more attractive (Transportministeriet, 2014). The strategy also highlights several principles for bicycle parking, including ease of access to cycle parking areas, high availability of parking for a wide range of bicycles (including cargo bikes), well-designed racks that enable cyclists to securely lock their frame to the rack, and potentially incorporating charging stations for e-bikes.

Denmark’s Recovery and Resilience Plan also describes a scheme for e-bike infrastructure as a means for achieving the green transition in road transport and for using the bicycle as an alternative to more energy inefficient transport modes in urban and rural areas. The plan identifies electric bicycles as an attractive way for people to choose cycling when travelling longer distances, but this requires charging opportunities along the journey or at end points.

The Danish Planning Act of 2007 is characterised by its decentralist nature, giving more decision-making powers to the local level (Lidmo & Bogason, 2020), yet it provides several tools for the national government to shape land-use and spatial planning. The minister responsible for planning issues can give national planning directives (landsplandirektiv), which regulate municipal planning, either for specific regions or nationwide. So far, this avenue has not been used to make national regulations for cycling related to land-use and spatial planning, but in the Finger Plan 2019, for example, there are directives given on the inclusion of cycling while planning the placement of public institutions, green spaces, or public transport (Kirkeministeriet, 2019). However, these mechanisms are generally one-off instances, and they have not been used to regulate spatial or land-use planning for cycling in a holistic sense as of yet.

The Danish Road Safety Commission has identified several measures to be taken up by national and local-level actors for improving road safety. During the planning period, the commission selected the percentage of cyclists who use a helmet as one of several key performance indicators (KPIs) for measuring road safety. Other KPIs include measurements such as the percentage of car drivers observing road speed limits, use of distracting devices whilst driving, use of seatbelt, the percentage of the car fleet older than 10 years, and road safety education (including walking and cycling safety tests in schools). Improving lighting on bikes is also a recommended action for the public.

To generate more awareness for the increased national focus on cycling and to use its public attention, the Ministry of Transport launched the Year of the Bike 2022 as an initiative coinciding with the start of the Tour de France in Copenhagen. The initiative acted as an investment campaign for cycling infrastructure and projects outlined in the National Infrastructure Plan 2035. DKK 400 million is reserved for cycling related infrastructure projects (split between municipal projects and cycling infrastructure projects along national roads) (Transportministeriet, 2021-b). In a similar vein, the government is also interested in promoting cycling tourism in Denmark.

The National Infrastructure Plan 2035 announced the introduction of the National Knowledge Centre for Cycling Promotion (Det Nationale Videnscenter for Cykelfremme), which was founded March 2022 (Vejdirektoratet, n.d.-a). The centre is organised under the Danish Road Directorate and is tasked with generating and communicating applicable cycling knowledge through various media such as publications, handbooks, webinars, and newsletters. The centre was originally financed with DKK 4 million through the National Infrastructure Plan; however, the amount of financial backing provided for the centre has been criticised by some researchers who argue that national coordination efforts for ensuring Denmark remains and grows as a cycling nation need to be better supported—for example, with funding that enables a more comprehensive research database (Antabi, 2022).

Acting as an advisory council for the cycling knowledge centre is the Danish Road Directorate’s Cycling Council (Vejdirektoratets Cykelråd), comprised of members from Danish cycling and tourist interest organisations, the association of Danish municipalities (KL), universities, and other councils and agencies (Vejdirektoratet, n.d.-b). In tandem, the Danish Road Directorate organises an annual conference or one-day seminar on cycling for which it invites relevant actors into its headquarters. It is a forum for exchanging knowledge, best practices, and difficulties in developing cycling both nationally and locally.

Finally, the infrastructure plan also mentions using informational campaigns directed towards children and young people to encourage this population group to use the bicycle for commuting to and from school and other leisure activities. Educational campaigns would also, according to the plan, improve traffic safety.

There are several actors involved in the development of cycling in Denmark. While several national ministries play a role by providing support through financial means and policies, there is a broad collection of actors from local level administration, local organisations, and private sector actors that are making strides to achieve national-level objectives.

The Ministry of Transport has, for 8 years, been active in establishing bicycle parking facilities, improving wayfinding on national bicycle paths, setting up monitoring to reduce bicycle theft around public transport hubs, and supporting the work of establishing the cycle superhighways network, among other initiatives. They have also worked to establish an expert group on evaluating Denmark’s potential for cycling tourism along with the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Business and Growth, and VisitDenmark. The Ministry of Transport also works with other stakeholders to develop education tools for cycling, such as instructing children on road safety in schools alongside the Ministry of Education. Another ministry—Denmark’s Ministry of Climate, Energy, and Utilities—is the key ministry working towards achieving a 70% reduction of GHG emissions. 

The Danish Transport Authority (Trafikstyrelsen) plays an important role in working with road safety and green transport throughout the country, conducting traffic analysis and providing subsidies for cycling (such as a scheme for promoting bicycle parking in combination with public transport in 2020). The authority has also, for example, acted as the chairman of the Bicycle Parking Task Force in the past, working in collaboration with DSB, Rail Net Denmark, and Metroselskabet and reporting to the transport minister.

The Danish National Rail Company (DSB) also plays a collaborative role in ensuring smooth connections for cyclists moving between the bike and other modes of rail transport.

Public authorities at the national and local levels are the key responsible parties for investing in cycling infrastructure in their respectively owned roads. The Danish Road Directorate (Vejdirektoratet) is in charge of making sure Denmark’s state roads are developed and maintained, including the National Cycle Routes (Nationale Cykelruter) under the Danish Road Directorate’s Bicycle Council. The National Cycle Routes were established nearly three decades ago in collaboration between the Road Directorate, the Ministry of the Environment, and the local-level authorities (counties, at the time of their establishment; Vejdirektoratet, 2023-c). The Directorate plays a key role therefore in enabling today’s 11 National Cycling Routes across the country to form a coherent network. Most recently, the Directorate was also responsible for conducting a user survey on the National Cycle Routes, which they completed by conducting various interviews with users and tallying numbers of users across the cycling network (Vejdirektoratet, 2023-c). The survey informed the publication of key principles for the National Cycle Routes which municipalities must use as a basis when applying for changes to existing or developing new routes (Vejdirektoratet, 2023-d).

In addition to Cycle Superhighways secretariat facilitating the cycle superhighways throughout Denmark with municipalities and the Capital Region, other organisations such as the Cycling Embassy of Denmark (established in 2009) share knowledge and facilitate cooperation among private companies, local authorities, and NGOs. They also help to improve cycling on the policy agenda in Danish municipalities (Cycling Embassy of Denmark, n.d.).

Private companies also play a role in cycling work by ensuring that employees can park their bicycles at their offices and are granted appropriate end-of-trip facilities. They also work to ensure cooperation of employer-paid commuter bicycles.

¹ https://fm.dk/media/18511/aftale-om-groen-omstilling-af-vejtransporten_a.pdf

² https://www.odense.dk/borger/trafik-og-veje/veje/vejarbejde/hjallesevej-odensevej-og-svendborgvej-faar-

supercykelstier#:~:text=Odense%20Kommune%20er%20ved%20at,penge%20til%20i%202021%2D2022.

³ https://supercykelstier.dk/rute/oerestadsruten/

⁴ See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0789.

⁵ See, for example, https://api.vejdirektoratet.dk/sites/default/files/2019-07/Regnskabsinstruks%20for%20supercykelstier.pdf