Introduction

As the Nordic countries pursue their vision to become the most green, competitive, and socially sustainable region, they must contend with several challenges. With regards to the transportation sector, cities and regions in the Nordic countries must consider how urban mobility is linked to spatial segregation, cost of living, accessibility issues, and transport emissions.  

Such challenges are being addressed on a wider, international stage as well as at the local level. The EU’s Fit for 55 green transition package aims to decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by a minimum of 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels). In 2023, the EU revised the effort sharing regulation, thereby updating emission targets for EU member states in several sectors, specifically road transport, agriculture, buildings, small industries, and waste (European Council, 2023). Together, these sectors contribute to 60% of total emissions in the EU. For the Nordic countries of Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, this means a dramatic change in emissions target reductions—all three countries are now obligated to decrease their emissions by 50% by 2030 (replacing previous target reductions around 40%). Alongside Germany and Luxembourg, the Nordic member states have the most ambitious target goals under the Fit for 55 package within the EU (European Council, 2023).  

Given that nearly 25% of Europe’s GHG emissions are from the transportation sector, it is not surprising that the Fit for 55 package aims to reduce emissions in this particular sector by 90% (European Commission, n.d.-a; European Council, 2022). In fact, unlike most other sectors, the transportation sector has generally been increasing in emissions since 1990 (European Commission, n.d.-a; European Environment Agency, 2022-a). These figures are reflected within the Nordic countries of Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, as well, with the transport sector contributing to around one-fourth to one-third of emissions in each country, with road transport as the primary culprit (see Table 1). 

Table 1. Status of GHG emissions attributed to the transport sector and, more specifically, to road transport in Nordic countries.

Within the EU, road transport is responsible for more than 75% of GHG emissions within the transportation sector (European Environment Agency, 2022-a). Yet much of the focus for decreasing emissions in this critical sector has been geared towards alternative fuels and electrification infrastructure (Kester et al., 2018). For example, electric car registrations worldwide increased by 41% between 2019 and 2020 (IEA, 2021-a in Refsgaard et al., 2022). In 2021, the share of new passenger car registrations in Norway was around 65% (compared to Sweden’s 19.5%, Finland’s 10.6%, and Denmark’s 13.6%; European Environment Agency, 2022-b). While vehicle electrification does aid in decreasing transport emissions, these numbers emphasise the car-centricity of the Nordic countries. However, this approach tends to overlook the root issues of the climate crisis and cannot lead to long-term sustainability. The European Environment Agency (2023) emphasises that electric vehicles are not enough to achieve a sustainable mobility system. Orsi (2021) highlights the problems that electric vehicles pose to land use and the inevitable maintenance and potential expansion of impervious surfaces that come along with this space-occupying mode of transport associated with sprawling urban settlements. Furthermore, as Kyriakopoulou et al. (2021) state in their assessment of Sweden, “a three-pronged strategy is required [to achieve environmental goals]: movement towards a transport-efficient society; energy-efficient and fossil-free vehicles; and biofuels” (11). Thus, addressing road transport emissions may require a transformation of urban form, with sustainable urban mobility options—and particularly cycling—at the forefront (Warren, 2021). 

To combat the climate crisis, cities need to make a radical shift towards more sustainable modes of transport. Cycling is a key form of sustainable urban mobility that helps to achieve this shift. Municipalities and regional authorities can use cycling as a crucial measure to reduce road transport emissions rapidly and effectively. Research also shows that there are many additional benefits of choosing the bicycle beyond mitigating climate change, such as promoting a healthier population, reducing car congestion and air and noise pollution in our cities, and enabling large-scale cost savings (Sommar et al., 2022; Johansson et al., 2017). Furthermore, sociologists have posited that incorporating cycling into cities can improve exposure to diversity and improve levels of trust and feelings of connectedness as cyclists negotiate the street among one another (Brömmelstroet et al., 2017). Another recent study shows that cycling is positively associated with orientation towards the common good (i.e., political participation, social participation, neighbourhood solidarity, and neighbourly helpfulness; Schuster et al., 2023). A 2022 UN resolution regarding the integration of cycling into public transportation systems states that the bicycle has been a “simple, affordable, reliable, clean, and environmentally fit sustainable means of transportation, fostering environmental stewardship and health” for over two centuries (UN, 2022). Furthermore, the bicycle can “serve as a tool for development and as a means not just of transportation but also of access to education, health care, and sport,” and serves as an “eco-friendly mode of transportation that significantly reduces emissions and (…) delivers far-reaching positive socioeconomic impacts in addition to reduced pollution” (UN, 2022). 

While not every car trip can be replaced by a manual bicycle, the wide-scale adoption of e-bikes has afforded the opportunity to substitute longer car trips (e.g., distances between 5 and 25 km) with two wheels instead of four. According to the Danish National Transport Survey, 37.8% of all journeys are between 4 and 19 km, over half of which are made by car.⁵ And various studies suggest that swapping out one’s car for an e-bike to make such trips could be an efficient way to reduce emissions in the land-based transport sector (Hiselius & Svensson, 2017).  For example, a recent study in Norway demonstrated that people with e-bikes use private cars less frequently than other transport user groups while more than doubling their distances travelled by bike (Fyhri & Sundfør, 2020).  

However, the aim of transitioning transport users from the private car to the bicycle must be supported by a variety of mechanisms. While bicycle access is a key component for achieving increased cycling in cities (Pucher et al., 2010), other key support measures include things like bicycle infrastructure (e.g., separated bike paths as well as access to bike paths), end-of-trip accommodations (e.g., safe parking facilities), multi-modal transport integration (e.g., parking facilities at metro stations or the ability to carry bicycles onto trams, ferries, or subways), and educational measures, safety measures, and various legal measures that enable riders of all ages, backgrounds, and needs to feel comfortable when moving from A to B.   

According to an international review conducted by Pucher et al. (2010), policy plays a crucial role in increasing cycling. While there are several mechanisms that have been employed to achieve this—infrastructure, parking, multi-modal transport integration, legal interventions, public campaigns, land-use planning tactics, and building capacity among planners and decision-makers—there remains some uncertainty regarding which mechanisms are most effective, with a strategic combination of efforts as the most likely pathway towards success (Pucher et al., 2010; PATH, 2022; Alm & Koglin, 2022). However, such capacities are not evenly available to all municipalities or regions, and major cities typically have greater capacity to, for example, apply for state funding to achieve local-level cycling objectives. 

With these ideas in mind, the aim of this working paper is to provide a review of how Nordic countries are working towards improving cycling via policy and planning. The paper takes a national-level approach to review cycling objectives in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, reviews a range of mechanisms to achieve these objectives, and identifies the key actors responsible for carrying out the work. The paper then unfolds a discussion of the common and dissenting ways in which these Nordic countries plan for and create policies to support cycling.  

This report was produced as part of the Nordic Cycle Power Network—a 2-year project funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers (see Box 1). The main aim of the project is to activate a knowledge-sharing network among municipal and regional planners working to improving conditions for cycling in the Nordic Region. While informal networks within and among Nordic cities and countries exist, the Nordic Cycle Power Network is the first formalised cooperation across the Nordic Region that supports strategic initiatives that encourage increased cycling and decreased private car transport. 

Box 1. About the Nordic Cycle Power Network 

Funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Nordic Cycle Power Network is a 2-year project running from February 2023 until January 2025. The key aim of the project is to activate a knowledge-sharing network among municipal and regional planners working to improve conditions for cycling. Through a series of workshops and study visits, the network will identify measures that can be implemented in Nordic cities and regions to facilitate and enable a significant increase in trips made by bike to replace car use and reduce carbon emissions from the land-based transport sector.  

By engaging in various topics—such as collecting and using cycling data, integrating cycling into multi-modal forms of transport, prioritising cycling work within political frameworks, and planning and maintaining cycling infrastructure in winter conditions—the project addresses the discrepancy that exists between current cycling aims and their implementation. Many measures have been put into practice by Nordic regions and municipalities. However, according to local partner organisations who focus on cycling, there is a need to qualify and strengthen these measures in planning and decision-making processes. By facilitating Nordic collaboration on a range of critical topics, the project will lead to enabling residents in the Nordic Region to use the bicycle as a preferred mean of transportation.  

The network provides planners with tangible input for concrete actions and measurable outcomes to facilitate the development of actions that boost cycling in their own contexts, as well as inspire other European cities and regions with similar challenges. Findings from the workshops will be summarised into a Nordic Cycle Agenda, developed based on the discussions among the participating network of municipal and regional authorities and agencies. The Agenda will include a policy brief to inform decisionmakers what can be done at local, national, and Nordic-levels of policymaking to improve cycling conditions in the Nordic Region.  

The long-term impact of these activities will be a significant decrease of carbon emissions from the land-based transport sector. As more people choose to cycle, we will witness more positive effects on the climate, environment, and public health in Nordic cities and communities. Thus, the project will produce a variety of social, environmental, and economic benefits that contribute to achieving the Nordic Vision.  

Project coordinator: Nordregio
Knowledge-sharing facilitation: European Cyclists’ Federation 
Participating cities and regions: Cycle Superhighways of the Capital Region, Cycle Superhighways of the Central Region, and City of Copenhagen (Denmark); Helsinki Region Transport and Helsinki Municipality (Finland); Icelandic Road and Coast Management Agency and City of Reykjavík (Iceland); City of Oslo (Norway); Region Stockholm, Region Skåne, and City of Stockholm (Sweden); and City of Mariehamn and Åland Department of Infrastructure (Åland). 

For more information and updates on the progress of the Nordic Cycle Power Network’s activities, visit https://nordregioprojects.org/nordic-cycle-power-network. 

The Nordic countries and autonomous territories have many similarities with regards to culture, governance structures, and urban and regional planning. The Nordic Cycle Power Network provides an opportunity for planners working with various measures and solutions for cycling to inspire, encourage, and learn from one another.  

In this report, we have primarily utilised document analysis to explore the ways in which the Nordic countries of Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden are working with cycling. Researchers have conducted desk research to identify objectives at the national level by exploring key documents such as government programmes, climate plans, national-level cycling strategies, transportation plans and reports, and other documents published by relevant ministries in each country.  

The research was carried out between February and June of 2023, in advance of a workshop series which commenced in August 2023 among the Nordic Cycle Power Network participants. Due to the nature of project, there are several limitations that should be noted. Firstly, some of the Nordic countries underwent a change in government just before or during the research period, which means that certain national-level objectives that are identified from previous government programmes have not necessarily been taken up by the incoming or newly established leadership. The research was also restricted to a limited amount of time which has meant that we have not included the entire Nordic Region in this study. For example, Iceland, Åland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands are not represented in this work. The limited amount of time also means that the report does not represent a comprehensive overview of all mechanisms or actors involved. Rather, the value of the report is that it offers a sampling of the work happening in each country. Further mechanisms may also be active at the local level or through non-governmental organisations. New objectives, mechanisms, and actors may have emerged since the time of research. 

¹ Simoes & Victoria (2021); Danish Energy Agency (2022)

² Climate Roadmaps 2035 (n.d.); Jääskeläinen (2021)

³ Ministry of Transport (2021)

⁴ Trafikverket (n.d.-a)

⁵ In Denmark, about 12.1% of all journeys are made by bicycle, with the greatest percent of these journeys at between 4 and 9.9 km. Between 10 and 19, the car is the dominant mode of transport compared to walking, cycling, and public transport. (13.8% of all journeys are between 10 and 19 km, with 10.1% of them being made by car. In other words, 73% of journeys between 10 and 19 km are made by car.) While it may not be likely to adopt the bicycle for trips much further than 20 km, still the car accounts for 46% of all trips between 4 and 9.9 km, and 23% of all trips between 2 and 3.9 km. Though walking and cycling have higher shares for shorter journeys, still 8% of trips under 2 km are made by car (compared to 10% by bike). Importantly, the average number of occupants in passenger cars is only 1.33 (see Tables 11b and 11c in Christiansen & Baescu, 2022).