1. Introduction and background

The issue of urban segregation has gained increasing political, public and scholarly attention across Europe, including the Nordic countries. While European cities have traditionally had lower levels of segregation compared to North American ones, in recent decades they have experienced rising social inequalities and segregation (Musterd et al., 2017; Tammaru et al., 2019). This is related to factors such as changes in welfare regimes and housing systems; global economic and labour market restructuring; and immigration (Musterd & Ostendorf, 1998; Tammaru et al., 2019; van Kempen, 2007). As noted by several scholars, income inequalities have grown in advanced capitalist countries since the 1980s, with the pursuit of free market efficiency, welfare retrenchments and privatisation – all of which have impacted the provision of social housing – exacerbating segregation issues (Arbaci, 2007).

Nordic countries and cities are not exempt from these trends. Despite robust social protection systems and high levels of income redistribution, they have seen mounting socio-spatial segregation and inequalities, combined with shrinking social housing stocks (Haarstad et al., 2021; Tammaru et al., 2021; Wessel, 2015).

A tendency towards increased urban segregation is observable in all the Nordic countries. While this trend is most evident in major urban regions and capital cities (Tunström & Wang, 2019), it is also present in many medium-sized and smaller towns (Saikkonen et al., 2018; SKR, 2022; Stjernberg, Oliveira E Costa, et al., 2020). The precise terms of the segregation situation varies, however, across the Nordic countries.

Residential segregation appears to be most pronounced in Sweden, with Stockholm exhibiting the sharpest socio-economic segregation among the Nordic capital cities (Haandrikman et al., 2023; Tammaru et al., 2021). In terms of ethnic segregation, spatial isolation trends among immigrants and ethnic minorities in Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö are among the most extreme in Europe (Östh et al., 2015). Denmark, particularly Copenhagen, also displays significant segregation between ethnic and socio-economic groups, notably between rental and owner-occupied housing (Christensen, 2015). In Norway, demographic shifts and increasing inequality has made Oslo a focal point, with an increased concentration of non-European residents in rental housing and poorer districts (Turner & Wessel, 2013). Here, the ethnic and socio-economic divide between the eastern and western parts of the city is remarkable, reflecting both residential and school segregation patterns (Cavicchia & Cucca, 2020).

In Finland, numerous studies have drawn attention to increased socio-economic and ethnic segregation in the Helsinki region since the early 1990s economic recession (Kortteinen & Vaattovaara, 2015; Vilkama et al., 2014). Deprivation has become increasingly multilayered and concentrated in areas where there are high concentrations of social rented housing (City of Helsinki, 2019). Finally, in Iceland, where residential segregation has traditionally been low, a rapid rise in labour migration over recent years has led to emerging patterns of spatial isolation among Reykjavík’s immigrant and minority populations (Huilla et al., 2024; Magnúsdóttir et al., 2020).

In order to address concerns arising from these trends, governments and cities across the Nordic region – and Europe more broadly – have implemented an array of policies and urban planning measures aimed at promoting social inclusion and combating poverty. Such policies are often focused on specific urban or suburban areas, (Stjernberg et al. 2020; Tunström et al., 2016), typically post-war housing estates and deprived urban areas, which are increasingly associated with socio-economic and physical decline (Hess et al., 2018; Trætteberg et al., 2023). These regeneration efforts often include measures targeting the physical and social environments of such areas (P. Hall, 1997; Hess et al., 2018; Van Kempen et al., 2005). Other approaches include policies designed to encourage social mixing, such as inclusionary housing initiatives in Denmark (Granath Hansson et al., 2024), or the City of Helsinki’s policy of housing tenure mixing, which has been applied since the 1960s in order to prevent segregation (Ronkainen & Eskelä, 2022; Vaattovaara et al., 2018). In broad terms, these policies and planning measures are designed either to promote social inclusion in disadvantaged or decaying neighbourhoods, or alternatively prevent the emergence of social problems in newly built areas.

It is these Nordic approaches and practices that form the subject of this report, which is part of the ‘Planning for Socially Mixed and Inclusive Neighbourhoods’ project, carried out as part of the work of the Nordic Thematic Group for Green and Inclusive Urban Development (2021–2024).

This study looks at Nordic policy-making and planning concerning the development of more socially inclusive cities and neighbourhoods. The region’s national governments have introduced a range of policies and strategies designed to prevent segregation in cities, while planning interventions are typically carried out at the city or district level. Thus, the report explores how the state and municipalities interact, as well as how public sector organisations and other actors work together to tackle segregation and foster social inclusion. In particular, the report seeks to uncover how national policies, programmes and legislation influence – both directly and indirectly – policy and planning interventions carried out in cities and neighbourhoods. In doing so, the project focuses on four main themes, explored through four overarching research questions (see Table 1).

As outlined in Table 1, the first theme concerns what the Nordic policy landscape looks like in terms of policies aimed at counteracting segregation and promoting social inclusion in cities, while the second relates to the role of indicators and data. Key elements explored under the latter theme include who is responsible for managing the collection and assessment of indicators, as well as how they are used to support the development and implementation of relevant policy and planning measures.

The third theme explores the public participation and citizen involvement policies, strategies and planning approaches used in Nordic cities to strengthen inclusion in both newly built and existing neighbourhoods. While the main focus is on how such processes are organised at the city and neighbourhood level, the report also casts light on how participation is emphasised in national strategies and policies.

Finally, the fourth theme focuses on the role of architecture and design, and more specifically the built environment interventions employed by cities in response to the challenges of urban segregation and social inclusion. Here, the role of local governance and community engagement in support of more inclusive local living environments is of particular relevance.

All the themes’ questions are explored through a multi-level governance lens, revealing how the state, municipalities and other actors and stakeholders interact when it comes to promoting social inclusion and preventing segregation. Each of the four themes is allocated a dedicated chapter (chapters 3–6 respectively).

The study relies on a multi-case study approach, which not only offers a solid base for in-depth investigations of the phenomenon in question across various contexts (Yin, 2014), but facilitates comparison of how cities in different countries work to create more inclusive communities. While the first theme (Chapter 4) has a specifically national focus, the remaining three themes (chapters 5–7) address both the national and local levels, with a primary focus on the latter.

The case studies in chapters 5–7 address 13 city cases across the five Nordic countries (see Table 2 and Figure 1 for an overview). For Iceland, Reykjavík is examined in all the thematic case study chapters, whereas for the four other Nordic countries, each thematic case study focuses on a different city. In some cases, it is a large city under scrutiny, in others a more medium-sized urban centre. The various cities were selected based on their relevance to the relevant thematic focus, as well as a drive to encompass as diverse a selection of cities (in terms of size and type) as possible. In practice, this means there are thematically relevant initiatives ongoing in the chosen cities, and in many cases a long history of the city working to address the issues examined.

The purpose of the cases study approach is to provide an overview of the policies, approaches and tools employed to combat segregation and foster socially inclusive communities in Nordic cities. Here, it should be emphasised that the intention is to not simply provide a collection of best practices, but rather illustrate and problematise the spectrum of policy and planning approaches at play. While the policies, tools and approaches spotlighted vary according to the local context, they all relate to the broader goal of counteracting the undesirable effects of inequality and segregation. Thus, an overarching aim of the study is to use the case studies as a jumping off point for discussions on what should be the key aspects for consideration in planning socially inclusive cities and neighbourhoods.

The study employed a qualitative approach, with various national-, regional- and local-level policies, strategies, laws and planning documents analysed, and a total of 31 interviews with 47 key informants carried out between November 2022 and January 2024. Interviewees included national, regional and municipal authority representatives, as well as researchers and architects with thematic expertise on the relevant topics. The policies and initiatives examined were for the most part initiated or implemented during 2021–2023, when the case studies were mainly carried out. In some cases, subsequent policy developments have been incorporated into the analysis.

The report is structured as follows. Chapter 2 presents the study’s theoretical framework, which is based on exploring segregation, social inclusion and public participation under the umbrella concepts of social justice and social sustainability. Following this, Chapter 3 provides an overview of national policies aimed at counteracting segregation and fostering social inclusion in the five Nordic countries (Theme 1). Chapter 4 focuses on indicators to assess segregation and social inclusion in Nordic cities (Theme 2), with Chapter 5 then proceeding to explore public participation and citizen involvement in spatial planning (Theme 3). Next, Chapter 6 delves into the interrelation between the urban built environment and social inclusion (Theme 4). Finally, Chapter 7 discusses the main research findings before presenting some final reflections on how best to plan for less segregated cities and socially inclusive neighbourhoods.