Photo: Juho Luomala, Unsplash.com

6. Interventions in improving physical and social living environments

This chapter focuses on how the physical living environment of neighbourhoods impacts social inclusion. More specifically, it explores the role of architecture and built environment design in addressing urban segregation and social inclusion challenges.

In each country case, the chapter first examines the relevant national policies and planning frameworks, before turning to a city-level analysis of the interventions being pursued to improve local communities’ physical and social living environments. In this instance, the cities under the spotlight are Lahti (Finland), Aarhus (Denmark), Bergen (Norway), Gothenburg (Sweden) and Reykjavík (Iceland).

Throughout, the analysis is guided by the following questions:

How, and to what extent, are physical living environments and their impacts on social inclusion and/or segregation emphasised in national policies, programmes and planning guidelines/legislation?
How can different planning interventions improve the quality of physical living environments, thereby fostering social inclusion, wellbeing, trust and community?
What are the key aspects to consider in local governance aimed at maintaining local living environments?

6.1 Finland

As outlined in the previous chapters, issues concerning segregation and social inclusion have assumed increased attention in Finland over recent years. This is also reflected in the country’s policies dealing with physical living environments, which emphasise the connection between the built environment and social sustainability in cities and neighbourhoods.

Below, Finland’s relevant national policies in this area are examined, followed by a closer look at how the City of Lahti works to counteract segregation and create more socially inclusive neighbourhoods through interventions in the physical living environment.

6.1.1 Physical living environment and social sustainability in national policies and planning

One of Finland’s key national policies concerning the built environment is the National Architectural Policy Programme 2022–2035, titled ‘Towards Sustainable Architecture’ (Finnish Government, 2022b), which was developed as a part of the Government Programme launched in 2019 (Finnish Government, 2019). The policy, abbreviated Apoli 2022–2035, sets Finland’s long-term objectives and measures for developing the quality of its built environments in a sustainable, comprehensive manner.

The new policy builds on a previous architectural policy programme from 1998, which was the country’s first such national policy (Finnish Government, 1998). The original policy’s key objectives included improving the quality of construction, as well as promoting the principles of sustainability, openness and interaction in planning and construction processes (Finnish Government, 1998). Internationally, Finland was considered something of a pioneer in national architectural policy, with the 1998 policy programme – which was published in five languages – serving as a model for similar policies in several European countries (Finnish Government, 2022b). Domestically, meanwhile, the 1998 policy was credited with raising the profile of architecture and the built environment in public debate.

The 1998 policy also prompted many Finnish regions (e.g. Uusimaa, Häme, Satakunta, Southwest Finland, Eastern Finland) and municipalities/cities (e.g. Helsinki, Tampere, Vantaa, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti) to create their own architectural policy programmes (Finnish Government, 2022a; Finnish Government, 2022b). The multitude of regional- and local-level architectural policy programmes developed since the early 2000s eventually prompted calls for an updated architectural policy programme that better reflects contemporary challenges. Thus, a key starting point for developing the new programme was considering how architecture can help address challenges related to sustainable development; health and wellbeing; equality and inclusion; demographic changes; and digitalisation (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2022).

Apoli 2022–2025 was drafted by a 21-person working group appointed by the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of the Environment, with Archinfo Finland – the Finnish information centre for architecture – acting as secretary. The working group members all had relevant built environment expertise, while other experts and stakeholders were also consulted in the process. The National Architectural Policy Programme is also linked to international initiatives for the built environment, such as the Davos Declaration and the New European Bauhaus, as well to national architectural policy frameworks in other Nordic and European countries (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2022).

Apoli 2022–2025 is premised on the notion that high-quality built environments can both immediately improve the quality of life enjoyed by all Finns and address future challenges, such as the climate crisis (Finnish Government, 2022b). Towards this end, the programme stresses the importance of good planning and cooperation in developing well-functioning living environments. Among the core principles emphasised are that a well-planned built environment can promote inclusion and reduce inequality, and that such environments should be developed in conjunction with residents and users, while anticipating potential future needs (Finnish Government, 2022a).

Overall, the principles underlying the Finnish national architectural policy appear closely aligned to other relevant national policy frameworks concerning social inclusion and urban segregation (see section 3.1). Apoli 2022–2025 and the international policy frameworks it is connected to are realised concretely at the local level, which highlights the importance of city-level policies, strategies and initiatives when it comes to implementation.

6.1.2 Addressing the built environment, social inclusion and segregation through policy and planning in the City of Lahti

Lahti, located in Päijät-Häme region in southern Finland, has around 121,000 residents, making it the country’s ninth most populous municipality, while the wider urban region has a population of approximately 204,000 (City of Lahti, 2024f). Social sustainability – including promoting social inclusion and tackling segregation – is an important strategic focus for the City of Lahti (City of Lahti, 2023e). It is against this backdrop that the sections below examine how the administration is working to enhance the vitality of the city and its local neighbourhoods through physical living environment interventions.

Figure 24. Aerial view of Lahti

Source: City of Lahti, Juha-Pekka Huotari

Regional and local architectural policy

The 2007 Häme architectural programme, developed for Kanta-Häme and Päijät-Häme regions, was one of Finland’s first regional architectural policies (Hämeen arkkitehdit SAFA, 2007). This visionary document applied the 1998 national architectural programme’s objectives to the regional level; assessed the state of the built environment within the two regions; defined goals for future development; and proposed measures for achieving them. Throughout, a core element was on how architecture and the built environment can contribute to wellbeing. The programme itself was fairly general in nature, as it was intended to provide municipalities and other relevant actors involved in developing the built environment with a framework for incorporating the programme’s objectives into their own activities and initiatives (Hämeen arkkitehdit SAFA, 2007).

In 2010, seeking to further concretise the priorities set out in the previously discussed national and regional architectural policies, the City of Lahti published its first local architectural policy programme: Apoli Lahti (City of Lahti, 2010). The overall aim of Apoli Lahti 2010 was to enhance the city’s competitiveness and its residents’ quality of life by improving the aesthetic quality of the built environment. The programme stipulated that good architecture, along with well-executed living environments and landscapes, was essential to a high-quality built environment (City of Lahti, 2023a). Moreover, the programme complemented the city’s strategic aim of growing in a sustainable way, and becoming an ever more attractive, vibrant city (City of Lahti, 2010).

Apoli Lahti also provided an overview detailing the historical development of the city’s built environment, highlighting its key features. Finally, although the programme defined a number of objectives related to the development of the built environment up to 2020, it stated the exact measures used to achieve them should be decided on annually and defined more concretely in a specific programme of measures (City of Lahti, 2010).

According to the City of Lahti, Apoli Lahti 2010 has had a demonstrable influence on subsequent urban development plans and projects, especially from an aesthetic perspective. Other concrete impacts include the establishment of a cityscape advisory board and appointment of a cityscape architect tasked with overseeing the city’s most important construction and urban development projects. (City of Lahti, 2024b).

A new architectural policy building on Apoli Lahti 2010 was published in 2022 with the title ‘A Good Environment Creates Wellbeing’ (City of Lahti, 2022a). This new policy reflects the city’s current strategy, including its goal of making Lahti a frontrunner in sustainable development, and defines measures for developing Lahti’s architecture and urban image. Compared to the original policy, it lays greater emphasis on the need to consider potential climate change impacts on the built environment (City of Lahti, 2022a). The city’s suburban districts are also now highlighted as a central thematic focus.

More generally, the new programme stresses the importance of good planning and ensuring sufficient time for implementation, as well as the role of participation and communication – particularly in terms of having a shared understanding among the actors and stakeholders involved. The programme presents general guiding principles for the work it envisages being carried out, such as strengthening the identity of Lahti’s neighbourhoods; improving urban greenery; highlighting the importance of quality in architecture competitions; emphasising the significance of the early design phase; and strengthening a people-centred approach to built environment planning.

The City of Lahti has received both national and international recognition for its work in this area. For instance, in 2023, the Finnish Association of Architects presented the city with an award for promoting sustainable and good living environments, and taking action towards climate neutrality (City of Lahti, 2023c). The city’s architectural policy was cited as a key reason behind the award, as it had contributed to sustainability becoming a cross-cutting theme within the city organisation. Moreover, in 2021, Lahti became the first Finnish city to receive the European Commission’s European Green Capital Award (European Commission, 2021).

Social sustainability and segregation as a key strategic focus

As is many other Finnish cities, questions concerning segregation have assumed increased strategic importance in Lahti over recent years. The perceived need to take action stems from developments observed in in other Nordic and European countries, where urban segregation has become associated with various societal problems (Berg, 2023). In addition, Lahti is characterised by high unemployment, comparatively low educational levels, and relatively high marginalisation among young people compared to other Finnish cities (Alho, 2021).

According to a senior housing policy expert working at the City of Lahti (Interview 25, 2023), while there has long been a policy focus on good living environments, it is only more recently that a more explicit focus on segregation and social inclusion has emerged in key strategies and policies. This includes the city strategy – Lahti 2030 – which is centred around sustainability (City of Lahti, 2022d) and places strong emphasis on ensuring Lahti is an inclusive city where everyone can participate in the development of their community. In this context, promoting wellbeing and taking a proactive approach to preventing exclusion are highlighted as key.

To support implementation of the city strategy, a number of more specific programmes have been created to address different policy areas, with segregation and social inclusion central to several of these. This includes the City of Lahti’s Wellbeing Plan for 2020–2025 (City of Lahti, 2022b), which contains an objective concerning knowledge acquisition around segregation processes and trends, and creating structures for counteracting these developments.

Similarly, the City of Lahti’s 2023–2028 programme for housing policy and land use emphasises the prevention of segregation, together with ensuring wellbeing, safety and social sustainability (City of Lahti, 2023b). In particular, the programme highlights the importance of ensuring housing of different sizes, types and tenure forms are available throughout the city (Ojanperä, 2023). Towards this end, the policy states the city will, if necessary, restrict the construction of small dwellings in areas with numerous small apartments, and that the proportion of one-room dwellings must not exceed 30% in any part of the city.

Moreover, the housing and land use programme for the first time contains a specific goal of restricting the proportion of social rented housing to a maximum of 30% in certain neighbourhoods (Berg, 2023). Here, the city administration has the authority to turn down applications to construct state-subsidised rental housing in neighbourhoods where the proportion is already high. Another way to diversify the residential area housing stock is to plan for more detached and semi-detached housing in areas that predominantly consist of multi-family homes (Berg, 2023).

Greater focus on segregation and social inclusion is also evident in spatial planning. For instance, sustainable wellbeing is a core theme in Lahti’s city master plan for 2021–2025, under which preventing segregation is a specific objective (City of Lahti, 2021). When it comes to comprehensive planning, the City of Lahti has adopted a unique approach whereby the city master plan is revised at the start of each four-year city council term (City of Lahti, 2024g). While some other Finnish municipalities have since adopted a similar approach, Lahti was among the first to introduce a so-called ‘continuous masterplan’ (jatkuva yleiskaava) (covering the 2009–2012 period) (Honkanen, 2019). Among the benefits of a continuous masterplan is that it allows for longevity, better connecting spatial plans with the city’s strategic aims over a four-year cycle (Interview 25, 2023).

Participatory approaches to addressing segregation and social inclusion

One important avenue for the city to promote social inclusion is through participatory approaches pursued at various stages of decision-making and planning. In this respect, the City of Lahti’s participation model constitutes a key strategic document (City of Lahti, 2024e), as it describes the administration’s principles, main approaches and goals concerning participation, along with common guidelines for city employees to follow.

One important approach used by the city to engage residents is so-called ‘partnership tables’ (kumppanuuspöydät). In 2022, four partnership tables were set up in different districts across the city. Residents and other community representatives were invited to apply for a two-year membership, following which the municipal board selected 15 members and 15 substitutes for each partnership table (Suomi, 2023). The partnership tables are non-political and do not have any decision-making power. Nevertheless, they provide a forum for representatives to offer their opinions on major plans, make proposals to the city, and help organise local residents’ meetings together with the authorities (City of Lahti, 2024a).

Similarly, as is the case in several other Finnish municipalities, the City of Lahti makes use of participatory budgeting (see section 5.1). An earmarked budget of €200,000 is divided equally between city districts, with residents then tasked with deciding how the funds should be spent. The overarching aim is to strengthen local democracy, develop stronger communities and make public budgets fairer and more efficient. In 2023, a total of 956 initial ideas were put forward, which were then refined down to 171 final ideas in the voting phase. Approximately 4% of Lahti residents exercised their right to vote (City of Lahti, 2024c).

As previously mentioned, participation and citizen engagement are core principles of the key legal frameworks steering spatial planning in Finland. According to an interviewee, however, the City of Lahti has actively sought to go beyond what is legally required to engage residents and other key stakeholders (Interview 25, 2023). This has, claims the interviewee, led to more inclusive planning processes and fewer complaints about plans.

Interventions in physical living environments

Carrying out interventions in physical living environments is crucial to strengthening the vitality of Lahti’s neighbourhoods and combating segregation. Particularly relevant here are the area-based interventions that have been carried out in suburban housing estates associated with socio-economic disadvantage. State funding from national programmes targeting post-war housing estates has been important for several of these projects, which have been carried out in Lahti since the 1990s.

The most recent national Neighbourhood Renewal Programme (Lähiöohjelma 2020–2022) funded several local projects in Lahti (City of Lahti, 2022c). One of these targeted the Rakokivi-Nastolanharju area in eastern Lahti, where the local multi-purpose centre’s surroundings were upgraded through the renovation of underpasses, improved lighting, new and better green spaces, and the building of a cultural park. Meanwhile, specific actions in the suburban district of Mukkula – carried out through close interaction with residents – included refurbishing play areas, improving a disc golf range, upgrading community allotment gardens, and improving green spaces to strengthen biodiversity (Ministry of the Environment, 2022).

The Neighbourhood Renewal Programme also funded two parallel research projects focused on the Mukkula district (City of Lahti, 2022c) led by the Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology (LUT) and implemented through collaboration with the city authorities. One of the projects gathered in-depth knowledge on the current state of Mukkula through experimental development pilots and the close involvement of local residents (LUT University, 2020). The work was oriented towards preventing segregation, increasing wellbeing and inclusion among residents, and promoting neighbourhood vitality. The second research project concerned carbon neutrality, and sought to generate knowledge on the carbon footprint of local residents and how it might be reduced (Halonen et al., 2023). According to an interviewee (Interview 25, 2023), these two projects have helped push the topics of segregation and inclusion up Lahti’s policy agenda.

As mentioned, participatory budgeting is an important approach for engaging residents in Lahti. One interviewee, however, raised concerns about the funding allocation for participatory budgeting (Interview 25, 2023). The five districts across which the reserved budget is distributed are all relatively large, which to some extent has led to many projects being carried out in relatively affluent areas where residents are more likely to participate in formal processes (Interview 25, 2023). Conversely, some of the more socio-economically disadvantaged neighbourhoods have seen fewer projects carried out using participatory budgeting funds due to less active participation among residents.

Another noteworthy approach has been the construction so-called ‘multi-purpose community centres’ (monitoimitalo) in various parts of the city (City of Lahti, 2023d), with the intention of upgrading both services levels and the local physical living environment. These centres incorporate combined local facilities for learning, leisure, culture and public services (e.g. schools, kindergartens, sports facilities, libraries, health and dental care services, and resident meeting places) (City of Lahti, 2024d). Through such investments and measures, the city aims to promote the liveability and viability of targeted neighbourhoods and ensure key public services are available locally (Interview 25, 2023).

Lahti’s population size has remained relatively unchanged in recent years: between 2018–2023, it grew only marginally from 119,951 to 120,693 (Statistics Finland, 2024). As one interviewee highlighted, Lahti’s preconditions for urban development are therefore different to cities experiencing significant population growth. The city has limited need for new housing construction, while infill development – a commonly used approach to revitalising post-war housing estates in cities such as Helsinki where housing demand is high (see section 4.1) – is not a viable option in Lahti.

Moreover, Lahti’s architectural programme recognises several suburban housing estates constructed in the 1960s and 1970s as important cultural environments (City of Lahti, 2022a). This means the strategic demolition of housing to make way for new construction – an approach adopted in some Finnish municipalities – is not always possible (Alho, 2021).

Ultimately, the city has limited influence on local housing market development, as developers’ investment decisions are determined by market demand. Nevertheless, one way the City of Lahti can influence construction is through local plans that impose conditions on developers regarding, for instance, the layout and appearance of buildings; the size distribution of dwellings; or environmental criteria. Given Lahti is a low-demand housing market, however, it is not possible to set criteria as restrictive as those seen in higher-demand housing markets (e.g. Helsinki capital region), as doing so would risk steep increases in construction costs increasing, potentially hindering the realisation of housing development projects (Berg, 2023).

6.1.3 Key takeaways

When it comes to addressing social sustainability and segregation, an interviewee at the City of Lahti stressed that the high priority now placed on data and knowledge to support policy-making had proven to be extremely valuable (Interview 25, 2023). Particularly useful has been the collection of detailed spatial data, analysis of which has become more synchronised with the city’s policy and planning interventions. For example, in preparing the 2023–2028 housing and land use policy, such data was used for the first time to analyse segregation patterns and trends across the city (Kangas, 2021).

From the perspective of spatial planning, the City of Lahti’s use of a continuous master plan – updated at the beginning of each four-year council term – appears to be a well-functioning model (Interview 25, 2023). The approach offers both greater flexibility and a better way of connecting spatial planning to the administration’s strategic aims (City of Lahti, 2024g). More generally, closer alignment between relevant policy and spatial planning frameworks is considered advantageous for addressing complex issues such as segregation and social inclusion, which require a holistic approach.

The City of Lahti seeks to promote social inclusion and counteract segregation through various participatory approaches. One interviewee mentioned this as a core strength of the city organisation, which deploys many well-functioning and effective practices despite the relatively limited resources available (Interview 25, 2023). In this context, Lahti’s participation model (City of Lahti, 2024e) has helped streamline ways of working towards shared goals, while the city’s planning officers – who specialise in participation and have clearly defined roles – were also mentioned as an important asset. Nevertheless, as is commonly the case in pursuing participation, Lahti continues to face challenges in engaging difficult-to-reach population groups.

The state-funded Neighbourhood Renewal Programme 2020–2022 was also highlighted as important for addressing segregation and social inclusion. The projects carried out in Lahti using funding from the programme not only resulted in new knowledge and concrete measures, but contributed to better organisation around these issues within the city administration (Alho, 2021). Also relevant is the ongoing collaboration – involving research projects and student assignments – between the City of Lahti and the city’s university, which has provided new knowledge in support of policy and planning across a number of thematic areas (Interview 25, 2023).

As a medium-sized city, Lahti has a comparatively small city organisation, which, according to an interviewee (Interview 25, 2023), offers the advantage of reducing the level of administrative hierarchy. Thus, organisational silos are perhaps less evident than in larger cities, making cooperation between different branches easier. Nevertheless, there remains scope for improved coordination within the city organisation to deal with segregation in a more cross-cutting way (Alho, 2021). Here, the interviewee (Interview 25, 2023) underlined the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the various actions carried out city-wide and more locally in neighbourhoods.

Another example of where improved coordination within the city is needed concerns the sharing of information between different administrative branches. Despite the increased focus on gathering data to support planning and decision-making, there still appear to be organisational barriers hindering access to information gathered by other administrative units. From this perspective, the interviewee called for a more clearly delineated home base tasked with overseeing actions related to segregation and social inclusion, as responsibilities are currently somewhat fragmented across the city organisation.

Addressing segregation and social inclusion requires both political will and sufficient resources. As touched upon, the city organisation often has to work within the constraints of relatively limited resources, which limits the actions open to it. Nevertheless, what is encouraging from the city’s perspective is that segregation and social inclusion have gained increased prominence in key city-level strategies and policies over recent years, which may provide better preconditions for dealing effectively with these complex issues. Moreover, according to an interviewee (Interview 25, 2023) there is currently a greater sense of optimism in the city. Positive recent developments include the announcement of industrial investments, the establishment of a new university in 2019, and Lahti being designated a European Green Capital in 2021.

6.2 Denmark

In Denmark, planning and design of the physical living environment is strongly linked with planning for more socially inclusive cities. This can be seen, for instance, in the City of Copenhagen, where there has long been a strong focus on designing public spaces and buildings that put people first (Souza, 2022). As a result, Copenhagen is currently considered to have one of the highest quality-of-life satisfaction levels in the world. Urban architect Jan Gehl, whose philosophy of ‘Life, space, buildings – in that order’ has guided Danish urban planning and development over recent decades, has been instrumental in this transformation (Souza, 2022).

Denmark’s approach to architecture regards public spaces as crucial to urban life, providing a venue for meetings between different cultural and social groups, and both planned and spontaneous social interactions. Alongside this, there has been an enduring emphasis on socially inclusive building design. For instance, when it comes to architectural provision for an older population, Denmark is currently seen as leading the way in creating environments that break away from the sanitised environments of nursing homes (Peters, 2014).

As will be explored below, however, creating cities and urban spaces that are inclusive of different population groups is a challenging task that requires considerable policy and sectoral coordination. Against this backdrop, the City of Aarhus, and to a lesser extent Copenhagen, are spotlighted in order to demonstrate the policy and planning interventions available to create inclusive, assessable physical living environments.

6.2.1 Physical living environment in national policies and planning

The Danish Planning Act regulates planning at various levels across the country, including spatial plans implemented at the national, municipal and local levels. In addition, there are several national policies relevant to built environment planning and social inclusion.

One such policy framework is Denmark’s 2014 architectural policy, titled ‘Putting People First’ (Danish Government, 2014). The policy was an extension of the first national architecture policy presented in 2007 (Schubert, 2024) and provides guidance on the regulations laid out in the Danish Planning Act. Throughout, strong emphasis is placed on architecture’s role in promoting social sustainability and preventing ghettoisation and social imbalances in urban areas. The policy takes a holistic view of architectural quality, incorporating aesthetic quality, sustainability, social inclusion, accessibility, and flexibility in construction (Danish Government, 2014).

Through the 2014 policy, the government committed itself to promoting sustainable, high-quality, people-centred architecture, highlighting the potential environmental, economic and societal benefits of investing in architectural quality. This commitment was particularly directed at public construction and development projects, with the aim of encouraging private developers to adopt similar practices. Overall, the policy underscored the idea that architecture – which fosters opportunities for communities and urban life – can play a crucial role in preventing segregation and other urban problems.

The Danish government utilises urban renewal and area renewal funds to engage in development projects that involve both the public and private sectors (Danish Government, 2014). The overarching objective is to promote architecture that strengthens communities and security through the creation of diverse, accessible and socially sustainable urban and rural environments. In doing so, the policy recognises the potential of architecture to repurpose empty buildings and homes for the benefit of citizens.

Furthermore, the architectural policy has a broader aim of building on humanist traditions by stressing community, social ideals and democratic values in the development of cities, housing and urban areas. In essence, the policy envisions that good architecture aligned with humanistic principles can contribute to the wellbeing and inclusivity of Danish society. As of 2024, a new national architecture policy was under development. Core focus areas of the work being undertaken include dealing with the climate crisis and sustainability from a holistic perspective, providing public housing, ensuring active city centres, and revitalising villages (Danish Government, 2014).

Also relevant in this context is the previously mentioned 2018 Ghetto Strategy (see sections 3.2 and 4.2), at the core of which is a commitment to reduce the number of areas classified as ghettos. As part of this, the strategy endorses substantial transformation of the built environment, with one focus area being the demolition of outdated housing units and redevelopment of targeted areas, thereby creating a more diverse, integrated housing environments. However, despite being launched to counteract segregation, the Ghetto Strategy has proven to be somewhat controversial due to its association with discrimination, stigmatisation, eviction and displacement of vulnerable groups (Alves, 2022; Open Society Justice Initiative, 2021, 2024).

The principle of universal design is another factor relevant to the national policy landscape concerning physical living environments. Essentially, universal design is about taking account of human diversity when designing and shaping environments, thus allowing everyone to use them regardless of body, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, culture or age (Danish Architecture Centre, n.d.). With this in mind, the 2018 Danish Building Regulation (BR18) includes various regulations ensuring accessibility for all individuals, including those with disabilities (European Accessibility Resource Centre, 2023). Meanwhile, the Danish Road Directorate plays a role in evaluating traffic and transport accessibility, and in 2017 published a handbook dealing with the universal design of streets, urban spaces and other traffic areas (Danish Road Directorate, 2017).

Another relevant document is a 2011 report published by the Ministry for Urban and Rural Affairs centred around the universal design of public spaces in neighbourhoods. The report was influenced by the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, with universal design viewed as crucial to the creation of inclusive urban spaces that accord with these conventions. Towards this end, the report contains guidance, inspirational examples, information on disabilities, and tools for public and private actors involved in urban development and design (Sigbrand & Pedersen, 2021).

Finally, the Danish Building Research Institute and ‘Design for All’ network contribute through their websites, offering inspirational examples, advice and recommendations on accessibility and universal design (Tunström & Löfving, 2020).

6.2.2 Built environment and social inclusion in Aarhus

Aarhus is the second-largest city in Denmark, with a population of approximately 373,000 inhabitants as of 2024 (Statistics Denmark, 2024). The city’s population has grown markedly over the past decade, with projections suggesting further substantial population growth in the years to come. While population growth is generally regarded as positive for the municipality, it has led to challenges related to rapidly rising housing prices, which have made it increasingly difficult for lower- and middle-income households with ordinary incomes – including families with small children – to settle in the city (Colliers, 2024).

Figure 25. Aerial view of Aarhus

Source: Unsplash, Andreas Jensen

Municipal policies and strategies

The overarching vision presented in the city council’s so-called ‘Aarhus Goals’ is for Aarhus to be a good city for everyone. Examples of objectives that correspond with this vision include being a sustainable city with good urban and local communities, and a place where everyone thrives and is healthy (City of Aarhus, 2023a). Architecture, urban design and housing policy are all regarded as key tools in working towards becoming an inclusive city. This is reflected in both the 2017 municipal plan, which stresses urban quality and liveability for all (City of Aarhus, 2017), and the City of Aarhus’s integration policy, which focuses on equal opportunities for all (City of Aarhus, 2023b). A relevant point in this context is that Aarhus is becoming an increasingly diverse city in terms of ethnic composition and youth presence – the city is currently the youngest in Denmark, with a high presence of students (Kildall Rysgaard, 2019). Thus, the city’s urban development must answer the needs arising from these demographic changes.

The City of Aarhus’s Policy for Urban Quality and Architecture (Politik for Bykvalitet og Arkitektur) (City of Aarhus, 2022) serves as a visionary framework for ensuring high-quality urban development and inclusive architecture. Rooted in the Aarhus Goals, the policy outlines eight guiding principles that emphasise the uniqueness of the city’s diverse areas, from the city centre to new neighbourhoods. The policy objectives include establishing a common management tool; promoting sustainability; highlighting architectural potential and unique qualities; clarifying expectations for construction; fostering a culture of dialogue; and providing direction for ongoing development projects.

The City of Aarhus’s urban planning and architecture division is led by a single politician and an administrative leader (Interview 24, 2023). The city council sets the political direction and votes to approve significant projects. This distinctive leadership model extends throughout the organisation, shaping the approach to urban planning and development. Within the city administration, separate divisions handle various aspects of community life – for instance, a planning and environment division deals with the physical aspects of the urban landscape, while another division oversees social relations. Each division operates under the guidance of a political leader. This means the city’s urban planning and development activities are intertwined with a political agenda that evolves with each election cycle, reflecting the work’s dynamic nature work (Interview 24, 2023).

Three main topics emerge when analysing how the City of Aarhus utilises architecture and built environment planning as means of promoting social inclusion: 1) social mixing and counteracting segregation; 2) design and planning of inclusive public spaces; and 3) public participation.

Social mixing and counteracting segregation are particularly emphasised within Aarhus’s architecture policy (City of Aarhus, 2022), as well being a central part of the Danish approach to urban planning and architecture more broadly. The Aarhus architecture policy stresses the importance of physical accessibility, universal design, and a mixture of housing tenures and price ranges (Aarhus Kommune, 2023). In addition, emphasis is placed on enhancing social interaction when designing new buildings, including their common spaces. Here, the policy cites the housing development Aarhus Ø as a successful example, as it contains not only a variety of apartment typologies but several shared spaces. Moreover, a wide range of activities and services are made available to all residents, which is seen as contributing to an active urban environment (City of Aarhus, 2022).

Figure 26. Aarhus Ø, an urban development site in central Aarhus on the city’s former container port

Source: Unsplash, Kristian Egelund

When it comes to neighbourhood social mixing and achieving social diversity, the provision of a varied housing supply (in terms of type, size, tenure form and pricing) emerges as perhaps the most crucial aspect (Nielsen & Haagerup, 2017). This is reflected in the City of Aarhus housing strategy (City of Aarhus, 2016), which seeks to make urban areas more socially diverse. Danish housing associations are non-profit, with two-thirds of the rent they collect going into a national building fund, which is then used to pay off the mortgages covering construction of the dwellings (Housing Europe, n.d.). Over time, as the mortgages are paid off, the rental income pot can be used to finance new social housing or renovate existing stock. In Aarhus, this has allowed housing associations to upgrade their stock to modern energy standards without imposing significant rent increases.

Approaches and initiatives

The municipality has also employed various tools to counteract division, with efforts have been made to uplift vulnerable housing areas through comprehensive initiatives. In Gellerup (Eriksson & Nielsen, 2022) and Viby Syd, for instance, regeneration is ongoing. Ensuring a diverse housing stock across the city is crucial, as it enables residents to remain in their local communities should altered life situations or finances cause their housing needs to change.

Overall, Aarhus’s social housing sector offer a significant tool for ensuring diverse housing supply and mitigating segregation, ensuring all social groups can access a home that meets certain standards at a reasonable price. Additionally, it is an integral part of Aarhus’s overall housing supply, with many residents preferring the flexibility of renting. Thus, both problem-prone housing areas and traditionally attractive urban areas end up with a more diverse population composition, reducing division.

The design and planning of inclusive public spaces is another key element in the City of Aarhus’s architecture policy. The city’s approach not only aims to enhance the overall wellbeing of the community, but foster active community involvement in maintenance tasks, thereby providing employment opportunities and creating a sense of responsibility, especially among those who are homeless or otherwise vulnerable. Furthermore, the city’s streets are designed to be as inclusive as possible (City of Aarhus, 2023c), with particular attention paid to accommodating various modes of urban mobility. Alongside this, the thoughtful distribution of urban furniture – such as benches – aims to create welcoming spaces for all residents, including children, older citizens and individuals with reduced mobility (City of Aarhus, 2023c).

Public participation is regarded as essential by the municipality. In 2022, the City of Aarhus established a new unit tasked with devising participatory approaches and extending their application to smaller-scale interventions. Citizen-driven initiatives feature prominently in some projects, showcasing a robust grassroots approach. In addition, a municipal board devoted to universal design has been given responsibility for ensuring the inclusion of individuals with diverse handicaps, while other boards are dedicated to – among other things – advocating for LGBTQ+ rights and catering to the needs of youth and students (Interview 24, 2023).

One concrete initiative for engaging the local community in maintaining public spaces is the so-called ‘SydhavnsPedeller’ initiative, which operates in Sydhavnen – historically a working-class neighbourhood in southern Aarhus (Gadeliv, n.d.). Launched in 2018, SydhavnsPedeller operates as a working community that seeks to involve vulnerable residents of Sydhavnen in cleaning and maintenance tasks. The initiative also performs ad hoc tasks in the neighbourhood, continually expanding its area of operations due to high demand for employment opportunities among the area’s homeless and vulnerable population.

An overview of the Buens Torv project in Copenhagen is provided in Box 12, presenting an example of the co-creation of public spaces based on feminist architecture principles.

Box 12. The Buens Torv project in Copenhagen

The Buens Torv project is a pioneering initiative aimed at advancing understanding of gender in urbanism and promoting social sustainability within the local community. The project places great stress on the connection between built environment planning and social inclusion, both in terms of the public spaces produced and the active involvement of residents in the process (COurban, n.d.). In doing so, it underscores the importance of inclusive design processes and community engagement, including democratic participation in decision-making processes.

The focal point of the project is the area under Bispeengbuen, a highway bridge situated on the border of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg municipality. The physical interventions involved encompass a wayfinding initiative, an art installation and the creation of a new semi-public indoor space known as the ‘greenhouse’. The ultimate goal is for the area to attract a greater diversity of activities and people, and particularly for more women and girls to spend time in the space (Werner & Gammelgaard, 2022).

The project has sought to address the area’s historically undesirable reputation through a variety of interventions and new facilities (e.g. street sports facilities). Adopting a feminist approach to architecture, the Buens Torv project actively involves women, non-binary individuals and marginalised groups in the design and co-creation of spaces. Throughout the process, Buens Torv is mindful of the dynamic interconnections between urban space and social structures such as race, gender and class. The project serves as an example of how to implement feminist urban design in Denmark, highlighting the importance of continuous dialogue, relationship building and citizen participation (Interview 15, 2023).

6.2.3 Key takeaways

A strong focus on architecture and urban planning for social inclusion is evident in Denmark, particularly in cities such as Aarhus and Copenhagen. The philosophy of putting people first in design, championed by urban architect Jan Gehl, has shaped Danish cities into some of the most liveable in the world. Nevertheless, challenges and opportunities for improvement remain.

At the national level, Denmark has implemented progressive policies aimed at promoting social inclusion in urban development. This is exemplified by inclusionary zoning laws, which ensure a portion of social housing is reserved for marginalised communities, thereby fostering diversity and equal access to housing opportunities (see section 3.2). Moreover, the 2014 national architecture policy emphasises architecture’s role in advancing social sustainability, preventing ghettoisation, and creating diverse, accessible environments. On top of this, the principle of universal design is strongly endorsed in Danish policy and legislative frameworks dealing with the built environment.

In Aarhus, these principles are put into practice, with the city’s policy for urban quality and architecture laying out a set of principles designed to ensure urban planning responds dynamically to community priorities. A focus on social mixing and combating segregation is evident in the approaches adopted by the City of Aarhus. Through prioritising physical accessibility, universal design and diverse housing options, Aarhus aims to create socially inclusive neighbourhoods.

Various initiatives demonstrate a commitment to fostering social interactions through shared spaces, micro-shops and community activities. Moreover, public spaces are designed to be inclusive for diverse users across the city. From accounting for various urban mobility modes to the strategic distribution of urban furniture, the city strives to create welcoming environments for all, including children, senior citizens and those with reduced mobility.

Active citizen participation is also considered crucial. In this respect, the City of Aarhus has established a unit dedicated to devising participatory approaches, and more broadly encourages grassroots involvement in smaller-scale initiatives. Initiatives such as SydhavnsPedeller underscore the city’s commitment to providing employment opportunities and fostering a sense of community responsibility.

Nevertheless, challenges remain, particularly concerning affordable housing. First, as already discussed (see section 3.2), Denmark’s national strategy against the formation of parallel societies, has thrown up difficult issues related to loss of public housing, displacement and gentrification. Second, the recent trend of developers building private rental housing has made entering the housing market difficult for many people, especially young individuals. This trend is fuelled by tax incentives favouring rental housing construction, raising concerns about housing affordability once tax benefits expire. Additionally, existing national laws limit a municipality’s ability to mandate more diverse housing types (e.g. co-housing), hindering efforts to create inclusive neighbourhoods.

Overall, though, Denmark’s holistic urban planning strategies – encompassing both national policies and local initiatives – provide valuable models for promoting community wellbeing. Nevertheless, future attempts at addressing challenges such as affordable housing will require meaningful, ongoing collaboration between the government, developers and communities.

6.3 Norway

Norwegian architecture has historically been characterised by a strong emphasis on nature, encompassing aspects such as topography, landscape features and views. The model of an equitable society also undeniably shapes contemporary Norwegian architecture and planning of physical living environments. In addition, especially over the past couple of decades, issues such as climate change and social sustainability have introduced important new considerations to the planning of built environments (DOGA, n.d.-b).

A number of aspects must be considered when attempting to understand the connections between architecture, built environment planning and social inclusion in the Norwegian context. At the national level, Norway’s comprehensive approach to built environment planning places strong emphasis on issues of sustainability and social inclusion, drawing on universal design principles in doing so. Combined, Norway’s national and local architecture policies, coupled with state-funded area-based regeneration initiatives, seek to holistically address a range of living condition challenges in disadvantaged urban areas.

Having elaborated on the above, the text hones in on the City of Bergen, and to a lesser extent the Municipality of Trondheim, spotlighting the range of initiatives being implemented to create inclusive local urban environments and neighbourhoods. These encompass municipal strategies and planning policies, as well as various international and national programmes that have been instrumental in guiding local interventions.

6.3.1 Physical living environment in national policies and planning

Norway’s comprehensive approach to the built environment and social inclusion incorporates numerous initiatives, policies and strategies. Here, the Norwegian Planning and Building Act (Plan- og bygningsloven) (2008) – the primary legal framework that municipalities must adhere to in physical living environment planning – plays a central role. The act is driven by a commitment to promote the wellbeing of individuals, society and future generations through sustainable development.

One of the act’s underling principles is the notion of designing for universal accessibility. This must be considered in both planning and individual building projects, and includes a specific focus on the living conditions of children and young people, as well as the aesthetic design of a project’s surroundings (Planning and Building Act, 2008). The act also underscores the necessity of upholding the universal design principle via the accessibility requirements applied to housing. On top of this, the act sets out clear directives on architectural quality, referencing aesthetic design of surroundings, visual qualities, architectural design and building practice.

Another important national policy framework is the Norwegian architectural policy, titled ‘architecture.now’. Although the policy does not have any regulative power, it provides guidance for Norwegian municipalities in matters concerning architecture and built environment planning (Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs, 2009). Developed through cooperation between 13 ministries, the policy was launched in 2009, with Design and Architecture Norway (DOGA) playing a key role in its implementation. The policy aims to promote architecture in a broad sense, including encouraging the consideration of new challenges arising from climate change, growth and transformation. It also stresses the importance of architectural quality – encompassing functional, technical and formal aspects – in the planning and construction of buildings.

The following six focus areas constitute the foundations of the national architecture policy (Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs, 2009):

Architecture should be distinguished by eco- and energy-friendly solutions;
Cities and population centres should be developed using good-quality architecture;
The government should safeguard the cultural environment and building heritage;
Architecture should be promoted by knowledge, competence and dissemination;
The government should be a role model; and
Norwegian architecture should be visible internationally.

As the above focus areas imply, the national architectural policy lacks specific emphasis on the interconnections between physical living environments and social inclusion. Nevertheless, the notion of universal design is prominent in Norwegian policy frameworks. This builds on a long history: the principle of accessibility for people with disabilities was introduced into legislation in 1976, and over the ensuing decades the government has pursued a range of legislation, comprehensive strategies and specific initiatives addressing accessibility for people with disabilities (Tunström & Löfving, 2020). Norway’s commitment in this area is further underscored by the country’s 2013 ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, together with its adherence to additional EU and Nordic requirements.

In recent years, the Norwegian government has sought to enhance inclusion by applying the principles of universal design to all relevant national policies, from the 2015 Government Action Plan for Universal Design to guides for cultural heritage, and road and street infrastructure (Norwegian Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, 2015). Th government’s comprehensive approach to universal design extends to a range of sectors (e.g. transport, ageing, healthcare, higher education), taking the form of funding, knowledge dissemination, networking and mapping.

Nevertheless, the action plan acknowledges an ongoing need for concerted, systematic efforts. In this regard, the plan highlights a variety of good practices and measures incorporating universal design, encompassing technological development; standardisation; strategic planning; financial support for home improvements; skills training; improved planning processes; urban design; information dissemination; and networking. These measures have been implemented by various actors, in many cases through collaboration between ministries, other governmental agencies, businesses and NGOs.

The action plan also emphasises the importance of maintaining and monitoring completed work, as well as ensuring universal design aspects are taken into consideration in national plans and strategies. In doing so, it acknowledges the persistence of various challenges, including the need to disseminate knowledge more widely and enhance the systematic implementation of measures (Norwegian Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, 2015).

Housing is a hotly debated topic in Norway, especially when it comes to social inclusion (Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation, 2021). At the national level, the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development (KDD) oversees housing and building policy, while the Norwegian State Housing Bank, Husbanken is responsible for financing public housing for the most disadvantaged (Husbanken, n.d.).

Norway has a dual housing system whereby public housing is strongly means-tested and only constitutes about 4% of housing stock, while the remainder is governed by the free market (Sandlie & Gulbrandsen, 2017). Historically, Norway has displayed a strong tendency towards homeownership, and this remains the case today: about 80% of households own homes. This strong orientation towards homeownership combined with a lack of affordable housing initiatives poses significant challenges when it comes to making the housing offer more inclusive– especially in Oslo, where there are strong housing market pressures (Cavicchia, 2023).

Area-based regeneration initiatives constitute an important approach for addressing urban areas facing living condition challenges. Here, the state and municipalities collaborate extensively through long-term agreements designed to revitalise the targeted areas (see also section 3.3). The resultant initiatives aim to enhance services and uplift local environment quality in areas facing socio-economic difficulties through simultaneously tackling both physical living environment and social environment challenges. The state has established agreements with the cities of Oslo, Bergen, Drammen, Stavanger, Trondheim, Sarpsborg, Fredrikstad, Kristiansand and Skien, and in 2024 agreements were established with the municipalities of Gjøvik, Halden, Indre Østfold, Larvik and Tromsø.

The government’s commitment to fostering socially sustainable urban communities is outlined in a 2023 white paper titled ‘Good Urban Communities With Small Differences’ (Gode bysamfunn med små skilnader) (Meld. St. 28, 2022–2023) (Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, 2023). This policy seeks to bolster good living conditions, enhance quality of life, and cultivate local environments conducive to growth and wellbeing. Area-based initiatives address a broad range of topics, such as enhancing living and neighbourhood environments; fostering community spaces and cultural activities; promoting immigrant integration; improving educational outcomes; increasing employment rates; reducing crime; and bolstering public health.

Collaboration between the state and municipalities is crucial to the implementation of national strategies and policies, and as such is underpinned by multi-level agreements. The Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development (KDD) plays a central role in coordinating state efforts, with involvement from the ministries of Labour and Social Inclusion; Children and Families; Health and Care Services; Justice and Public Security; Climate and Environment; Culture and Equality; and Education and Research. In addition, several directorates are involved in specific cities and areas, including the directorates of Labour and Welfare; Higher Education and Skills; Health; Integration and Diversity (IMDi); and Education and Training; as well as the State Housing Bank.

It should be noted that area investments are intended to supplement rather than replace regular municipal operations, fostering innovation, service development and job creation while enhancing both the physical and social aspects of the local environment.

6.3.2 Urban design and inclusive communities in Bergen

Bergen, situated in Vestland County on the west coast of Norway, has a population of approximately 292,000 (as of 2024), making it the second-largest city in the country. Bergen is known for its cultural diversity, with its economic opportunities, education, tourism and vibrant arts scene attracting people from a range of backgrounds (Eurocities, n.d.).

Figure 27. Aerial view of Bergen

Source: CC BY-SA 4.0

Urban planning and city strategies

Notably, Bergen distinguishes itself from other Norwegian cities by employing a city architect (byarkitekt). Operating under the city council’s Department for Climate, Environment and Urban Development since 2016 and functioning as an advisory body, the city architect has a pivotal role in elevating the quality of built environments throughout the municipality. In doing so, the city architect takes a comprehensive approach to urban development, emphasising sustainability, quality of life and spatial relationships. Additionally, they are responsible for steering the municipality’s architecture policy, which places great stress on the importance of built environment characteristics when it comes to social inclusion (Interview 27, 2023).

Planning of Bergen’s architectural landscape is organised into strategies and tools at different levels, which each address particular aspects of social sustainability and inclusion (Interview 27, 2023). At the foundational level, Bergen’s overarching city vision unfolds through two comprehensive strategic documents: namely, the social part of the municipal masterplan and the Green Strategy.

The municipal masterplan, which sets the direction for Bergen’s long-term development, consists of two parts: firstly, a social part (samfunnsdel), which describes how the city wants to develop, along with long-term goals and focus areas for enhancing inclusivity within the built environment; and, secondly, a land use part (arealdel), which provides an overview of – among other things – where it is permitted to cultivate land or to build roads, homes and other buildings (City of Bergen, 2024).

The social part of the masterplan is regularly renewed to reflect the city council’s priorities and focus areas during its term in office. In 2024, development of a new social part of the masterplan began. Meanwhile, the existing plan – approved by the city council in 2015 – contains the following key objectives (City of Bergen, 2015):

Facilitate social meeting places that can foster connections, strengthen social networks and promote community health;
Cultivate openness, inclusion and good living conditions for all, irrespective of social differences;
Ensure nurseries and schools offer quality environments that promote diversity, social mobility and integration, taking a proactive stance against discrimination and bullying;
Provide varied, high-quality housing within accessible living environments; and
Emphasise universal design principles that cater to diverse user groups, and integrate municipal housing seamlessly into urban structures. Here, the municipality should play an active role in ensuring adequacy.

Another relevant policy is the Green Strategy 2022–2030 (Grønn strategi – Klimastrategi for Bergen 2022 – 2030) (City of Bergen, 2022). While the strategy’s primary focus is on environmentally sustainable development, it also incorporates a number of social goals, such as:

Integrate a climate strategy that addresses social sustainability, enables environmentally friendly choices and envisions a universally designed city;
Emphasise quality densification in neighbourhoods, creating social meeting places that foster a sense of belonging, wellbeing and good health; and
Proactively work to prevent social and economic inequalities through developing methods for assessing and mitigating the social and economic consequences of climate measures.

In addition, there is a second tier of policies that encompass the physical and regulatory part of the municipal masterplan (City of Bergen, 2019a). These include various sub-strategies, notably the city’s cultural heritage strategy and architecture strategy, which collectively address diverse facets of social sustainability.

The 2019–2023 strategy dedicated to conserving Bergen’s culture heritage (Kulturminnestrategi 2019–2023) actively sought to foster a profound sense of community belonging (City of Bergen, 2019), and was premised on the notion that cultural monuments are central to a city’s culture heritage and identity. They are also a resource that cannot be renewed if lost, meaning cultural heritage must be carefully managed in order that monuments can be passed on to future generations in good condition. This is especially important in a dynamic city such as Bergen, where vast development and construction is taking place across the municipality. Cultural heritage forms part of these processes, and so must carefully be considered when it comes to enabling sustainable urban development (City of Bergen, 2019).

Also key is Bergen’s architecture and urban design strategy, named Architecture+ (Arkitektur+) (City of Bergen, 2020), which focuses on the urban environment, meeting places, and living and neighbourhood environments. In doing so, it provides recommendations on ensuring an active, attractive pedestrian city. The strategy’s foundational underpinning is that the design of built environments, encapsulated in architecture, exerts a profound influence on individuals and communities. Thus, architecture represents an invaluable tool for crafting an inclusive, distinctive, attractive and environmentally conscious city.

Social inclusion carries considerable weight in the strategy, with streets, squares and buildings envisioned as spaces for social interactions. The guiding principle is to pursue construction in an inclusive manner, eschewing segregation or the promotion of specific groups over others. This approach is not tailored towards any specific target groups, but rather advocates universal participation in public life – encapsulating the ethos of ‘inclusion for all’ (City of Bergen, 2020).

Collaborative projects and initiatives

Various international and national programmes constitute a third tier of policies. Among the most prominent in this group is Future Built, a pioneering national initiative designed to foreground innovative, sustainable architectural solutions. Originating in Oslo, the programme has now expanded to include Bergen (City of Bergen, 2023). At its core, the programme aims to support collaboration between developers and architects via a comprehensive quality programme that articulates the envisioned outcomes of projects. It is hoped that doing so will help push the boundaries of sustainability and encourage novel solutions.

In particular, Future Built serves as a conduit for steering the private sector towards the cutting edge of architecture innovation. By actively engaging with developers, architects and stakeholders, the programme acts as a catalyst for the creation of new solutions aligned with economic and social sustainability objectives. Overall, the initiative represents a concerted effort to alter the private sector’s trajectory towards more sustainable, socially responsible practices (City of Bergen, 2023).

Another relevant initiative is the international Dignity by Design programme, which focuses on the intersection of human rights and dignity within the built environment (IHRB, 2019). This collaborative initiative – led by the Institute for Human Rights and Business and backed up by other global human rights organisations – holistically examines how built environment design can uphold human rights and dignity throughout the construction process, encompassing all stakeholders and phases. Bergen was actively involved in a pilot project whereby the principles set out in the programme were used to develop an Inclusion Centre (see Figure 28) for newly arrived migrants and refugees, as part of the municipality’s wider commitment to being a human rights city (IHRB, n.d.).

Figure 28. Bergen Inclusion Centre

Source: City of Bergen, M. Rousse

The process of transforming a former teacher-training college of some 17,000 square metres into an Inclusion Centre started in 2019, with the municipality investing more than €90 million in redeveloping the facility (Council of Europe, 2024). The centre opened in 2024 and now serves as a hub for newly arrived immigrants, providing educational, health and language services, as well as activities fostering inclusion and intercultural interaction. Throughout the project, meticulous attention was given to ensuring the building’s design, construction and utilisation aligned with the overarching goal of promoting human rights and dignity (Interview 27, 2023).

Also worth highlighting is the 2018–2022 Bopilot initiative, a collaborative research project involving various research institutions and the municipalities of Trondheim and Bergen (City of Bergen, 2020b). The project explored how municipalities can stimulate housing sector innovation, specifically through the promotion of co-housing and shared spaces within neighbourhoods. The initiative also addressed societal challenges related to loneliness – a prevalent concern in Norway, particularly among the young and elderly populations. Notably, Bopilot attempted to combat the scarcity of affordable housing in Norway by introducing smaller flats and communal areas.

Municipalities traditionally have limited influence over housing innovations provided developers adhere to legal frameworks. With this in mind, Bopilot sought ways to empower municipalities to take a more proactive role in fostering diverse, innovative housing options. Essentially, the project revolved around encouraging private sector developers to introduce new housing construction concepts that cater to different target groups. Addressing the perplexing question of why there is limited construction of, for example, co-housing for older individuals or estates designed to appeal to a diverse mix of residents, developers cite a perceived lack of market demand.

In response, the project sought to establish mechanisms connecting potential buyers with developers, thereby facilitating a participatory process. This allows buyers to actively engage in the design and programming of their future homes, encouraging a sense of community. Through such means, Bopilot supported efforts to connect people and counter social disconnection in contemporary housing developments, as the while promoting community-based housing as a tool for socialy sustainable neighbourhoods (City of Bergen, 2023).

Area-based regeneration

As discussed in section 3.3, area-based regeneration initiatives are important for dealing with segregation and living condition challenges in Norwegian cities. In Bergen, there have been Områdesatsing initiatives (see section 4.3.3) targeting disadvantaged neighbourhoods, including the areas of Solheim, Slettebakken, Loddefjord and Olsvik (City of Bergen, 2018). An important knowledge base for deciding which geographical areas to target are the public health reports regularly published by the City of Bergen. These divide Bergen into 57 living conditions zones, casting useful light on the differences between areas. Based on this, the city council decides which interventions to apply to which areas. These initiatives fall under the remit of the city’s urban development department, but involve collaboration with both the state via the Norwegian State Housing Bank and the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, and local communities in the designated areas (City of Bergen, 2018).

Area-based initiatives are overseen by local coordinators responsible for internal and external coordination, development facilitation and community engagement. At the same time, the appropriate city departments and agencies are responsible for measures falling within their jurisdiction. As such, interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial when it comes to ensuring comprehensive, cohesive efforts in prioritised investment areas. Of particular importance is collaboration with the local population, private entities, businesses, voluntary organisations and other public bodies is emphasised. Here, diverse participation methods are encouraged in order to ensure a holistic, inclusive approach to community development (Interview 27, 2023).

Insights into how area-based initiatives are implemented in Trondheim Municipality are provided in Box 13.

Box 13. Area-based development in Trondheim

As discussed, area-based investments are a commonly used approach in Norwegian cities with concentrated socio-economic challenges. In Trondheim’s case, there have been several area investment initiatives over the years, including currently ongoing efforts (Municipality of Trondheim, 2022). In particular, the municipality’s commitment to area-based initiatives was underscored in 2021 when city policy-makers designated Lademoen and Tempe/Sorgenfri as priority areas (Municipality of Trondheim, 2024a).

One of Trondheim’s most recent area-based initiatives was launched in Lademoen. In this case, priority endeavours included improving social and physical meeting places as a means of nurturing better relations between groups residing in the district. Here, an essential first step was building mutual understanding among all the involved parties (Municipality of Trondheim, 2024b), as a guiding principle of the initiative was to identify pertinent measures through active dialogue with a range of residents and stakeholders.

One key early action involved establishing a local resource group that could harness the perspectives of community members and local stakeholders, garnering their input on how the neighbourhood should be shaped going forward. These networks were envisioned as stimulating greater cohesion and involvement among diverse resident groups – for example, encouraging the participation of children and youth in initiatives to renovate local schools.

Such initiatives are integral to the city’s strategy to cultivate inclusive, vibrant local communities. The pursuit of area-based initiatives is informed by various indicators, including the 2011 Trondheim Standard of Living Report, which delineates the geographical distribution of social inequality within the city. Additionally, the 2019 Trøndelag Health Survey (HUNT) provides invaluable insights into residents’ self-perceived wellbeing, shedding light on which local environmental qualities are most pivotal for public health and overall wellbeing.

At the national level, the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development (KDD) coordinates collaboration between state and municipal entities in area initiatives across Norway. Trondheim municipality is actively working to secure a decade-long agreement with the state in order to ensure sustained project funding for investments in Lademoen and Tempe-Sorgenfri.

In 2022, Trondheim municipality received NOK 8.2 million (around €740.000), in state funding to kick-start the initiatives, with the municipality’s own contributions earmarked for programme management. Moving forward, it is anticipated that the municipality, state authorities, and local public and private actors will collectively contribute measures to advance these area initiatives (Municipality of Trondheim, 2022).

6.3.3 Key takeaways

Norway has for some time displayed a strong commitment to inclusive, sustainable architecture, driven by the influence of nature, climate change considerations and the vision of an equitable society. The examples investigated above, particularly from Bergen, provide insights into both the successes and challenges seen at the national and local levels in planning inclusive physical living environments.

Norway’s comprehensive national approach to the built environment places strong emphasis on sustainability and social inclusion. The Planning and Building Act serves as a robust legal framework, mandating universal design principles in planning and building measures. Also relevant is the national architecture policy, ‘architecture.now’, which emphasises eco-friendly solutions and architectural quality. Even so, it does not specifically deal with social inclusion, indicating an opportunity for refinement.

Meanwhile, area-based regeneration initiatives – widely used in Norwegian cities to address living condition challenges in disadvantaged urban areas – provide a holistic approach for addressing both the socio-economic conditions and physical living environments of local neighbourhoods. Overall, Norway’s dedication to accessibility and inclusivity is underscored by its strong commitment to universal design principles, guided by international conventions and national policies.

Norway is characterised by a strong focus on homeownership, a limited share of public housing and a dual housing system. Especially in areas experiencing pressured housing markets, such as Oslo, this backdrop is not conducive to improved social inclusion. Even so, the case of Bergen exemplifies the positive strides made in municipal-level policies and initiatives. One example is the city architect role, whereby the individual in post helps steer municipal architecture policy, reflecting a commitment on the part of the city council to elevating the quality of built environments.

The social part of the city masterplan and the Green Strategy also demonstrate a holistic approach in their focus on social meeting places, diversity and universal design. On top of this, various sub-strategies related to the municipal masterplan address – among other aspects – cultural heritage and architecture, emphasising their role in creating attractive, inclusive urban spaces.

In additi0n, various international and national programmes and frameworks are relevant to interventions carried out in Norway’s cities. For example, the Future Built initiative addresses sustainability and social considerations in collaboration with developers, while the Dignity by Design programme – focused on the intersection of human rights and the built environment – has been instrumental in guiding the development of the Bergen Inclusion Centre.

Similarly, the Bopilot initiative has helped create new approaches to stimulating innovation in the housing sector, while promoting community-based housing as a tool for socially inclusive neighbourhoods. The City of Bergen’s active engagement in these initiatives demonstrates a commitment to innovation, sustainability and social responsibility, including finding new ways of addressing these issues in planning for the physical living environment.

Nevertheless, a persistent housing-related challenge in Norway – particularly in high-pressure urban areas – is the country’s strong focus on homeownership and limited public housing options, which hinders inclusivity. Going forward, ongoing efforts are needed to disseminate knowledge, enhance systematic implementation and address the lack of market demand for diverse housing options.

6.4 Sweden

National policy in Sweden stresses the role of architecture and design in creating inclusive living environments. Of particular importance in this regard is the Policy for Designed Living Environment, which seeks to reduce segregation and improve living conditions through the creation of safe, inclusive environments.

At the municipal level, the City of Gothenburg has developed a strategy for implementing the national policy’s goals. Here, the construction of a cultural centre in Bergsjön – a secluded district suffering from segregation and lack of functional diversity – offers a successful example of improving inclusiveness through architecture and design. In this case, the cultural centre strengthened social cohesion by giving residents the opportunity to come together and improve the area’s attractiveness.

6.4.1 Physical living environments in national policies and planning

Over recent years, a key issue concerning Sweden’s national authorities has been ensuring neighbourhood-level planning of physical living environments contributes to social inclusion and less segregated cities. This aim is reflected in the country’s legal frameworks and various national policies and strategies. For example, the Swedish Planning and Building Act (Plan- och bygglag 2010:900) states that spatial planning should promote good, equal social living conditions – both for the people of today and future generations (Planning and Building Act, 2010).

Elsewhere, the 2018 Strategy for Living Cities (Ministry of the Environment and Energy, 2018) regards addressing segregation as vital to creating more sustainable cities. More specifically, it refers to the role that architecture, urban form and the design of physical living environments can play – along with laying the groundwork for achieving national climate and environmental goals – in reducing segregation and strengthening social cohesion. The strategy highlights that urban areas should be designed so as to be accessible to everyone, which requires paying attention to such aspects as disability, gender equality, and the rights and perspectives of children and older residents. Moreover, accessibility in the built environment is described as a prerequisite for increased safety and crime prevention.

The connection between the physical and social living environment is also emphasised in the government’s 2018 long-term strategy to reduce and counteract segregation (see section 3.4). The strategy recognises segregation as a complex phenomenon involving a number of closely related dimensions, including housing, education, labour market, democracy and civil society, and crime (Ministry of Culture, 2018). As such, the strategy is clear that efforts to counteract segregation must address the issue at a structural level. This encompasses planning of neighbourhood physical living environments, along with measures targeting housing stock, employment conditions and integration.

Relevant here is Boverket’s 2023 report, ‘Tools to Reduce and Counteract Segregation’, which explores how physical planning, design and housing development can help address residential segregation (Boverket, 2023e). The report highlights the influence exerted by spatial organisation and built environment design on how we use and move around in a physical environment. For example, the physical living environment affects how we experience mental and physical barriers, while urban spaces can be designed in such a way that people from different groups are more likely to meet. Moreover, the report stresses the importance of giving everyone affected by measures targeting their living environments the opportunity to participate in planning processes. Such an approach is crucial for combating residential segregation and creating physical environments that enhance community.

Also highly relevant is Sweden’s 2018 Policy for Designed Living Environment (Politik för gestaltad livsmiljö), which sets out national objectives for architecture and design policy (Ministry of Culture, 2018). More specifically, the policy states that architecture and design should be used to help create a sustainable, equitable, less segregated society, in which everyone can influence the development of their shared environment. Several key principles related to this goal are set out, including that sustainability and quality should not be subservient to short-term financial considerations; environments are to be designed according to universal design principles; and cooperation and collaboration between actors is to be actively cultivated.

National authorities – notably the Swedish national architect at Boverket – provide guidance on architectural strategies related to ensuring a healthy living environment (Boverket, 2024c). Alongside Boverket, ArkDes, the National Heritage Board and the Public Art Agency Sweden are also tasked with promoting policy development in this area (ArkDes, n.d.). ArkDes serves as a knowledge source and platform for exploring, monitoring and disseminating information about relevant policy, especially in the fields of architecture and design.

Similarly, Boverket disseminates information on good practices, collecting research on – among other things – the role of the built environment in social integration; social aspects relating to health; and the importance of green space and daylight. Particularly important in this regard is the scientific research conducted at Chalmers University of Technology and the University of Gothenburg concerning how planning for physical and social living environments intersect (Interview 22, 2023).

Overall, the importance of physical environment planning in alleviating social segregation and reinforcing social integration is widely acknowledged at the national level (Interview 22, 2023). Essentially, a core goal of Sweden’s national policies is creating physical environments that allow the inhabitants of every neighbourhood to gain fair access to urban amenities and equal opportunities. This is an important yet ambitious goal in light of the current, somewhat unfavourable situation, especially in neighbourhoods characterised by socio-economic disadvantage.
Against this backdrop, the following section focuses on the interventions taking place in Gothenburg to revitalise physical living environments and strengthen social inclusion in disadvantaged areas.

6.4.2 Counteracting segregation and revitalising neighbourhoods through physical living environment interventions in Gothenburg

Gothenburg, located in Västra Götaland County on Sweden’s west coast, has a population of 610,000 in the city proper and 1. 1 million in the wider urban region (as of 2024), making it the country’s second-largest city and the fifth largest city in the Nordic region (City of Gothenburg, n.d.-b). A rise in socio-economic and ethnic segregation in the city over the past few decades has prompted greater political focus on the issue in recent years (Andersson et al., 2009; Östh et al., 2015).

Figure 29. Aerial view of Gothenburg

Source: Göteborg & Co, Per Pixel Petersson

Given that socio-economic status is closely linked to health status and quality of life, addressing segregation and socio-spatial inequalities is viewed as particularly pressing in Gothenburg, where – as of 2020 – there is an almost nine-year difference in average life expectancy between the city’s most advantaged and disadvantaged neighbourhoods (City of Gothenburg, 2023). Life expectancy is lowest in areas characterised by low income and educational levels and a high share of foreign-born residents. Here, Bergsjön, explored later in this chapter, stands out as having the lowest average life expectancy among both men and women.

The most socio-economically disadvantaged neighbourhoods are primarily suburban districts in northern Gothenburg, whereas higher status neighbourhoods are mainly located in the city centre or in the southern and western suburbs. Alongside increased residential segregation, Gothenburg has experienced rising school segregation (City of Gothenburg, 2023).

Policies to strengthen social inclusion and revitalise disadvantaged areas

The City of Gothenburg’s 2018–2026 Programme for an Equal City (Göteborgs Stads program för en jämlik stad 2018–2026) (City of Gothenburg, 2018b) is a cross-cutting policy covering all branches of the city administration, with cross-sectoral collaboration highlighted as a key implementation principle. The programme, which acknowledges working for equality as a long-term endeavour that may take years to yield tangible results, has four defined priority areas: 1) a good start in life and good conditions for growing up; 2) employment conditions; 3) sustainable and equitable living environments; and 4) participation, influence and trust.

The creation of accessible, inclusive social and physical living environments is also reflected in the Age-Friendly Gothenburg (Åldersvänliga Göteborg) policy programme, which has been ongoing since 2016 (City of Gothenburg, n.d.-c). The programme seeks to make Gothenburg a better city to age in, improving older people’s living conditions by strengthening self-determination and evening out health and wellbeing differences (Stjernberg, 2019b). The goal of becoming an age-friendly city is also tied to various other initiatives that have been launched to promote social sustainability, inclusion, human rights, public health and equal life opportunities.

Another strategy relevant to counteracting segregation is titled Development Strategy Göteborg 2035 (City of Gothenburg, 2014), which states that Gothenburg is segregated in several ways, and that physical planning should be used as a tool for promoting a more connected city. In particular, it calls for good physical links within and between all parts of the city. The strategy also points out that many areas in Gothenburg have insufficient services and shops, and that constructing new housing in these neighbourhoods can provide more equal conditions for accessing services.

One current policy goal is to ensure that, within the next few years, the city’s ‘especially vulnerable neighbourhoods’ are no longer classified as such on the Swedish Police’s list of vulnerable areas (see section 5.4) (Brorström & Styhre, 2024). As present, six of Gothenburg’s neighbourhoods feature on the list: Bergsjön, Biskopsgården, Hammarkullen, Hjällbo, Lövgärdet and Tynnered. The city council has therefore tasked Framtiden Group – owned by the City of Gothenburg and currently the country’s largest public housing organisation – with carrying out targeted interventions aimed at removing these areas from the list.

Framtiden owns and manages over 74,000 apartments across Gothenburg, with every fourth resident living in housing owned by the company (Framtiden, n.d.). It is also a major property owner in all the city’s vulnerable areas, and therefore seen as playing a potentially significant role in increasing safety and breaking structural segregation. Towards this end, a wide-ranging strategy for revitalising the city’s vulnerable areas has been drawn up, encompassing such issues as safety and crime; construction and refurbishment housing; affordability; employment and job creation; and creating more activities for young people (Framtiden, 2023).

The original goal stated in the city council’s 2020 budget was for there to be no Gothenburg neighbourhoods on the list of vulnerable areas by 2025. However, this was adjusted in the 2023 budget to a goal of no ‘especially vulnerable’ areas by 2030, and no ‘vulnerable areas’ at all by 2035 (Framtiden, 2023). One area targeted by these interventions is Bergsjön, explored in further detail below.

Targeted interventions in Bergsjön

Bergsjön, a suburban district in north-eastern Gothenburg hosting some 18,313 residents (as of the end of 2023) (Statistics Sweden, 2025), was developed as part of Sweden’s 1965–1974 Million Homes Programme (Miljonprogrammet) (T. Hall & Vidén, 2005). The district is located approximately 30 minutes from the city centre by public transport, and is serviced by two tram lines and one main bus route. Bergsjön mainly consists of densely populated, multi-storey concrete residential buildings, and offers few functional services to the many young people looking to spend their free time outdoors (City of Gothenburg, 2016).

Figure 30. Gothenburg’s suburban Bergsjön district

Source: CC BY-SA 3.0, Alicia Fagerving

Ever since the Swedish Police’s list of vulnerable areas was introduced in 2015, Bergsjön has been classified as an ‘especially vulnerable area’ (särskilt utsatt område). The area is associated with various problems and has long had a very low socio-economic status related to its location far from the city centre, monotonous built environment, lack of functional diversity, and vulnerable population. Thus, in 2013, Familjebostäder – part of the Framtiden Group – decided that Bergsjön was in need of long-term, proactive revitalisation work. A initial strategy document was developed for the period 2014–2021, with a revised strategy focused on measures aimed at removing the area from the list of vulnerable areas subsequently approved in 2020 (City of Gothenburg, 2020).

Social sustainability and integration are at the core of the current redevelopment of Bergsjön. In the first phase, around 2,500 homes – both rented and owner-occupied units – are to be built, mainly at a smaller scale in order to offer an alternative to the massive housing complexes that currently exist. In order to attract people from other neighbourhoods, there will be a particular emphasis on student housing and co-building. Another key focus is improving connectivity between Bergsjön’s various sub-areas, and between Bergsjön and its surrounding districts.

Although Bergsjön is surrounded by large green areas, a major ring road currently restricts access to them. The regeneration efforts are therefore seeking to not only make these green areas more accessible, but create new and better parks and meeting places. As was common in the 1960s and 1970s, the area was built based on a car-centric model. Now, however, the City of Gothenburg has switched focus to encouraging public transport and giving the area a more intimate character through densification, narrowing of the ring road and the creation of better cycle paths (Interview 30, 2023). Here, improving bus connectivity represented a first step in ensuring better connections with Gothenburg’s city centre (City of Gothenburg, n.d.-d).

A number of policies and research projects have been used to support these various revitalisation efforts. For example, the City of Gothenburg’s architecture policy (City of Gothenburg, 2018a), which is based on the national Policy for Designed Living Environment (Ministry of Culture, 2018), states that architecture, form and design should contribute to a sustainable, equal and less segregated society, where everyone can influence the development of their shared environment (City of Gothenburg, 2018a). More specifically, the policy lays out how architecture can contribute to an inclusive, attractive city where all residents enjoy proximity to services, green spaces and public transport (City of Gothenburg, 2018a).

The Divided City research project, initiated by the City of Gothenburg and carried out during 2013–2016, also provided valuable knowledge that has since been used in Bergsjön’s redevelopment initiatives (Interview 30, 2023). The research, largely conducted at the KTH School of Architecture, examined how segregation and social sustainability relate to the built environment and urban form, and how architecture and urban design can contribute to a less segregated city (Mistra Urban Futures, n.d.). One study with a significant focus on Bergsjön explored how living conditions across Gothenburg differ based on built environment characteristics (Legeby, et al., 2015).

The most important project realised in the area thus far has been the establishment of Culture House Bergsjön (Kulturhuset Bergsjön) (see Figure 31). This new cultural centre offers, among other facilities, a music studio; a ceramics studio; an exhibition hall; a stage for music, dance and theatre; and a library with story rooms, study areas and group rooms (City of Gothenburg, n.d.-a). The project was initiated in 2008, when various stakeholders (associations, companies, organisations and citizens) came together to form a cultural centre association. The city council became involved in the project in 2011, with its 2013 city budget including a decision to invest in the new cultural centre, which was eventually opened in 2022. The Culture House is located on Rymdtorget, one of Bergsjön’s main squares, which has been subject to series of a renovations that began back in 2000–2005, when the surrounding buildings were upgraded and premises for a library, preschool, and maternity and childcare centre, along with a new bus stop, were built (City of Gothenburg, 2016).

Figure 31. Kulturhuset Bergsjön

Source: CC BY-SA 4.0

The most important project realised in the area thus far has been the establishment of Culture House Bergsjön (Kulturhuset Bergsjön). This new cultural centre offers, among other facilities, a music studio; a ceramics studio; an exhibition hall; a stage for music, dance and theatre; and a library with story rooms, study areas and group rooms (City of Gothenburg, n.d.-a). The project was initiated in 2008, when various stakeholders (associations, companies, organisations and citizens) came together to form a cultural centre association. The city council became involved in the project in 2011, with its 2013 city budget including a decision to invest in the new cultural centre, which was eventually opened in 2022. The Culture House is located on Rymdtorget, one of Bergsjön’s main squares, which has been subject to series of a renovations that began back in 2000–2005, when the surrounding buildings were upgraded and premises for a library, preschool, and maternity and childcare centre, along with a new bus stop, were built (City of Gothenburg, 2016).

The Culture House has been at the heart of efforts to transform Bergsjön, not only in terms of improving the quality of the physical living environment, but also through fostering social inclusion, wellbeing, trust and community. The centre was intended to be both a meeting place for local residents, particularly children and young people, and a means attracting visitors from other areas (City of Gothenburg, 2016).

Given that overcrowded accommodation is a common issue in Bergsjön, the Culture House offers a welcoming place for people to meet or study outside of home, including during evenings and weekends. By contrast, the previous library shut on weekends (Interview 29, 2023). The venue also addresses the previously faced issue of local school pupils having to travel outside Bergsjön for cultural activities. Moreover, the centre provides facilities for people to learn about – among other things – organising events and activities; contracting and agreements; and applying for grants. Finally, the exhibition hall offers a space for local artists to showcase their work.

Overall, in simultaneously addressing multiple issues, Culture House Bergsjön has contributed to a sense of belonging among the local community, with citizen involvement as a cornerstone of the project since the early planning phase (Interview 28, 2023). Nevertheless, this project alone cannot resolve the many built environment challenges faced by Bergsjön. Issues such as the monotonous design of the area’s housing stock, a lack of multifunctionality, and the surrounding ring road all contribute to negative perceptions of the neighbourhood.

In order to attract more functional diversity and encourage employers to establish themselves in Bergsjön, better connections to neighbouring areas are necessary, as are significant efforts to improve the physical living environment (Interview 28, 2023). The City of Gothenburg has already launched interventions with these objectives in mind – for instance, by redeveloping Rymdtorget square. More broadly, creating attractive, accessible areas is seen as an effective means of promoting local service development by attracting businesses and establishing new workplaces (Interview 30, 2023).

6.4.3 Key takeaways

In Sweden, urban segregation has been recognised as a complex, multifaceted phenomenon encompassing such factors as housing, education, employment, democratic participation and crime. Against this backdrop, architecture, urban form and design are seen as having an important role to play in creating more socially inclusive, less segregated cities, with various key national policy frameworks emphasising the connection between physical living environments and social environments.

At the city level, Gothenburg is characterised by high levels of segregation. As such, counteracting socio-spatial disparities in living conditions constitutes an important policy goal in several city-wide strategies and programmes. The case of Bergsjön – a district of Gothenburg designated as ‘especially vulnerable’ – exemplifies how national and municipal policy goals are implemented at the local level, and how improvements in the physical environment can contribute to better living conditions in socio-economically disadvantaged areas. It also highlights the importance of adapting development initiatives to local needs through the close, early involvement of local associations and other key actors.

At the same time, Bergsjön illustrates the limits of localised action when it comes to reducing segregation. While the opening of Bergsjön Culture House has been successful up to a point, it cannot on its own solve the area’s challenges, particularly in terms of accessibility and connectiveness. Moreover, the construction of a cultural centre with a library as a focal point is not necessarily a replicable approach in other disadvantaged areas. Rather, what is most important is to take into account the context-specific conditions when identifying potential drivers of change. Here, Bergsjön has a long history of strong local commitment, which led to many small associations becoming engaged in the development process for the Culture House (Interview 28, 2023).

One important factor underling the success of Bergsjön Culture House is that the initiative was originally driven by local actors, who joined forces to promote the idea of building a new cultural centre in the area. This ultimately led to a political decision in favour of the idea a few years later (Interview 31, 2023). As such, the case highlights the importance of meaningfully involving local residents and actors in planning of their local physical environments, and using this as the basis for the priority-setting of local interventions.

6.5 Iceland

Iceland’s policy framework places strong emphasis on integrating sustainability, inclusivity and social cohesion into urban planning and design. This is reflected in the comprehensive scope of the National Planning Strategy and its related policies and laws, including the Icelandic Planning Act, which serves as a foundational pillar for urban planning (Interview 8, 2023). While the relationship between urban planning, the built environment, and socio-political measures designed to combat segregation and promote inclusivity is a relatively recent topic in Iceland, these issues have received increased policy attention in recent years, particularly in Reykjavík and its surrounding region (Interview 20, 2023).

In this light, the text below examines how Iceland’s national policies and planning legislation emphasise the interconnections between the physical living environment and social life. Having done so, the focus turns to the various policies and initiatives pursued in the City of Reykjavík and its wider region, which stress the development of urban living environments that foster social inclusion and – more indirectly – counteract urban segregation.

6.5.1 Physical living environment in national policies and planning

Iceland’s National Planning Strategy (Landsskipulagsstefna) articulates a unified spatial planning policy focused on sustainable development, environmental protection and the enhancement of life quality (Planning agency, 2016b). This is to be achieved by supporting competitiveness, flexibility and resilience to socio-environmental changes. The strategy is primarily implemented through municipal-level planning, with the relevant authorities required by the Planning Act to build on the national strategy when drawing up spatial plans. This comprehensive planning strategy spans the entire country and all territory types, including urban areas, rural areas, central highlands, and marine and coastal areas (Ísland.is, n.d.). Particular emphasis is placed on housing development; diverse modes of transportation; nationally significant infrastructure; climate change planning; wind energy; energy transition in transportation; and land use and landscape conservation.

The Planning Act (Skipulagslög) (no. 123/2010) is central to managing land use in Iceland, including ensuring that growth in urban and rural areas is sustainable and in harmony with the environment. Besides the Planning Act, Iceland has no specific laws on architecture and the built environment, except for a law concerning publicly owned buildings (Lög um listskreytingar opinberra bygginga og Listskreytingasjóð ríkisins, 1998).

In addition, as mentioned previously (see section 3.5), there are no specific laws on counteracting segregation and promoting inclusion. Rather, the National Planning Strategy, together with a number of sectoral polices, contain indirect references to fostering inclusivity and combating urban segregation through thoughtful built environment planning and design. These laws and policies set the foundation for the primary legal framework and policy goals that municipalities must adhere to in their plans (Interview 20, 2023; Interview 26, 2024).

New additions to the National Planning Strategy drawn up in recent years include new chapters on climate-conscious planning, spatial planning and landscape protection, and on healthy settlements and land use. Some of the key areas of emphasis contained in them are:

Climate-conscious urban planning, key aspects of which include reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon sequestration, as well as mitigating risks that disproportionately affect marginalised communities. The focus on climate change adaptation underscores the necessity of resilient infrastructures that protect all community members, while at the same time fostering social cohesion and addressing urban segregation.
Connectivity and mobility, which encompasses the promotion of climate-friendly transport options, including active and public transportation. By reducing the need for long commutes and encouraging sustainable mobility options, the policy aims to knit communities more closely together. The vision of compact, mixed-use communities – epitomised by the ‘20-minute city’ model – in which everyone’s daily needs are within a comfortable walking or cycling distance, further exemplifies this aim. Such an approach encourages social interaction, contributing to a more cohesive community fabric.
Inclusive public spaces and infrastructure, which emphasises the importance of public area and housing design in supporting climate-conscious mobility, meeting community needs, fostering inclusivity and building social cohesion. In particular, taking account of community identities when enhancing public spaces is highlighted as an effective means of cultivating a sense of belonging among residents.
Local governance and community engagement, which encompasses the active engagement of local communities and governance structures in planning processes. This translates into development initiatives being reflective of and responsive to the unique needs of community members, particularly those who have historically been marginalised or excluded. Community engagement can thus become a cornerstone for creating inclusive, vibrant and resilient urban environments.
Health, wellbeing and social life, which builds on the notion that there is an indissoluble link between physical environments and public health. Encouraging active lifestyles through urban design not only addresses physical wellbeing, but enhances mental health by cultivating community interaction and accessibility. Such an approach requires a holistic view of health and wellbeing, encompassing its social, physical and environmental aspects – all of which are also seen as important for addressing urban segregation and social inclusion.

Overall, Iceland’s approach to urban planning and design presents a forward-thinking model that emphasises sustainability and inclusivity. This is exemplified by the 2023 National Guidelines Concerning Sustainable Planning and Ecological Transport in Urban Areas, Focusing on People, Settlements and Urban Spaces (Mannlíf, byggð og bæjarrými – Leiðbeiningar um sjálfbært skipulag og vistvænar samgöngur í þéttbýli), a collaborative endeavour between the Icelandic National Planning Agency and the Association of Municipalities in the Capital Area (SSH) (Planning Agency and Association of Municipalities in the Capital Region (SSH), 2023).

The guidelines not only address the physical configuration of cities and neighbourhoods, but the intimate connections between urban living environments and social life. In doing so, they spotlight the critical role of local governance and active community involvement in creating more inclusive local living environments. By fostering collaboration among elected officials, municipal workers, urban planners, designers, residents and developers, the guidelines aim to nurture a collectively shared vision for sustainable and inclusive urban areas (Interview 8, 2023). Such an approach is crucial to managing community-driven initiatives supportive of diverse populations (Planning Agency and Association of Municipalities in the Capital Region (SSH), 2023).

Central to these national guidelines is the previously mentioned ‘20-minute city’ concept, which is seen as not only a way of reducing dependency on cars, but of enhancing local services and amenities, thereby promoting social cohesion. Here, a focus on dense but human-scale urban spaces is regarded as facilitating diverse, vibrant communities where various groups can interact more seamlessly. Through emphasising walkability, accessibility and mixed-use development, and in turn better integrating different social groups within shared spaces, the approach is highly relevant to matter of urban segregation (Interview 7, 2023). Additionally, by prioritising public transportation and ensuring streets are conducive to walking and biking, the guidelines support the creation of more inclusive built environments.

6.5.2 Urban planning and social inclusion in Reykjavík

In Reykjavík and its wider Capital Area, a number of initiatives and plans aimed at creating more sustainable, equitable urban environments are being implemented. Some of these have a cross-municipal focus, while others focus exclusively on the City of Reykjavík.

Figure 32. Street view in Reykjavík

Source: Mats Stjernberg

One significant approach in this regard is the transformation of local transportation so that it aligns with the holistic urban development perspective outlined in local plans and regional visions. Both the Green Steps of Reykjavík City and the 20-minute neighbourhood concept – which is referred to in collective regional plan for Reykjavík Capital Area – emphasise the importance of introducing transport modes supportive of sustainable development (City of Reykjavík, 2022; SSH, 2015).

The collective regional plan, which covers the period up to 2040, also focuses more broadly on preserving urban green spaces and promoting sustainable development (Lidmo et al., 2024). As part of this, equity loans – introduced in 2020 by the government’s national strategy – are available to assist first-time homebuyers (HMS, 2020). The loan system has, however, been criticised for potentially limiting access to housing areas and pushing particular groups to city outskirts (see section 3.5.1) (Lidmo et al., 2024).

Despite such challenges, the Green Plan of Reykjavík City (City of Reykjavík, 2020) and the active promotion of 20-minute city principles point to the council’s ongoing commitment to inclusive, environmentally, socially and economically sustainable urban development.

6.5.3 Key takeaways

Iceland’s National Planning Strategy focuses on both the physical elements of urban environments and the social fabric they support. Through climate-conscious planning, inclusively designed public spaces, local governance and community engagement, the strategy sets a clear framework for fostering urban environments conducive to social cohesion, trust and wellbeing.

Through prioritising active mobility and public transportation, advocating for compact, mixed-use communities, and fostering local governance and community engagement, Iceland is – at least at the policy level – working towards the realisation of 20-minute neighbourhoods. By its very nature, this vision has inclusivity at its core, as it involves ensuring daily needs are accessible to everyone, irrespective of social or economic status.

The City of Reykjavík exemplifies the practical application of these policies at the local level. In preserving green spaces, introducing equitable housing policies and promoting sustainable development, Reykjavík is spearheading efforts to mitigate urban segregation and champion social inclusion. Here, however, it should be noted that combating segregation with promoting social inclusion are considered byproducts – as opposed to specified objectives – of a planning system that prioritises community diversification and sustainable development.

In conclusion, although Iceland’s approach to urban development appears to lack initiatives that explicitly address inclusion or segregation, the country’s urban planning guidelines nevertheless promote inclusivity and cohesion by prioritising sustainability, community engagement and flexible, responsive planning.